SOCIAL MALAISE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON 
THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 
A study of public housing in Colombo 
A Dissertation Submitted to the University of Moratuwa 
As a Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of 
Master of Science in Architecture 
Department of Architecture 
University of Moratuwa 
July 1999 
ABSTRACT 
Cities are in the threat due to dissolute behaviour of its occupants. Social Malaise, one 
of those is observed mostly in urban neighbourhoods. Stress and frustration is believed 
to be one of the major causes of social malaise that emerge as a result of social, 
economic and environmental conflicts in the urban environment. Whatever the cause, 
the result comes out either as emotional or behavioural reactions. Social malaise, in 
this study is identified as behavioural reactions against (a) individuals (e.g. theft, 
robbery etc.) and (b) the built environment (e.g. Vandal.sm, graffiti etc.) Several 
scholars have attributed such behaviour to poor settlement planning and building 
design. According to Newman (1973), anonymity, lack of surveillance and presence of 
alternative escape routes of space are vital in deterring offenses against the people and 
the built environment. He called these characteristics as essential qualities of a 
'Defensible Space'. This study examines the notion of 'Defensible Space' with 
reference to the built environment of public housing in Colombo. In this endeavour, the 
first chapter deals with different theories related to social malaise and the built 
environment, thus preparing the theoretical base for the rest of the study. The second 
chapter deals with offences against the built environment, its motives and meanings 
giving emphasis on the destructive behaviour of people. The third chapter deals with 
the existing spatial and environmental approaches for the prevention of social malaise 
and vandalism. The latter part of the study concentrates on the findings and analysis of 
a field research, conducted in 38 public housing schemes in Colombo and two case 
studies done in Jumma Musjid and Maligawatta Housing Schemes. This reveals that 
design disadvantages as well as social aspects are having positive correlation between 
the offences against the built environment. Finally the study pinpoints these 
disadvantages in residential design, and forwards a set of guidelines that would assist 
the architects and planners to prevent such problems in the design of housing 
neighbourhoods in the future. 
i i 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
I sincerely wish to thank the academic staff of the Dept. of Architecture for their support from the 
beginning to the end of this study. 
My deepest gratitude to, 
Dr. L.A.S.R. Perera, Senior Lecturer and individual supervisor, for all the valuable comments 
and guidance with the inspiring discussions encouraging the work and above all, for his faith in 
this effort. 
Dr. Ranjith Dayarathne, Senior Lecturer, for his guidance, incisive comments and valuable 
criticisms and the effort extended to me in carrying out the study meaningfully. 
Archt. Vidura Sri Nammuni, Senior Lecturer, for the insight, which I gained through the valuable 
discussions with him that helped me throughout this study. 
Without their constant support and encouragement, this endeavour would never have been 
fruitful. 
I am also grateful to the, Director, National Science Foundation for the necessary funds 
provided in carrying out the research work confidently and successfully. 
My deep sense of gratitude to Archt. Wasantha de Silva for her valuable suggestions to improve 
the study. 
I am also grateful to Archt. Wasana Wijesinghe, who encouraged me throughout the study by 
giving valuable criticisms and suggestions. 
I would like to extend my special gratitude to Archt. I. de Silva of S.E.C and Archt. J.Domingo 
and Archt. Sirisena of NHDA and Archt. Presanna Silva and Archt. Giridharan of UDA for their 
valuable support in providing the necessary layouts and materials. 
I am also thankful to Mr. R. Samarajeewa, Senior Lecturer, English Unit, for the assistance 
given in completing the work accurately. 
My special thanks to Mr.Jagath Rupasinghe of CMC and Mr. Mithra de Silva of NHDA site office 
for their assistance given in collecting necessary information and Vineetha for the assistance 
given in computing the work. 
Let me forward my special thanks to Keerthi and Thanuja for their encouragement and valuable 
advice. 
My personal enthusiasm to Sankhani, Geethika, Dulini, Bhashini, Hiranthi, Niroshan, Nalaka, 
Vithana, Chamari, Nayana, and Aluvihare for their valuable support given in different stages of 
this study. 
Let me forward special thanks to my bother, sisters and brother in low who helped me a lot in. 
this effort. Also my parents for the financial and material support given. 
My special thanks to Hemal for the hours spent in trudging around places that I wanted to visit 
and his valuable ideas and advice given right throughout the study. 
CONTENTS 
ABSTRACT ii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii 
LIST OF ILLUATRATIONS v 
INTRODUCTION 1 
1. Background of the study 1 
2. Need of the study 1 
3. The study 2 
4. Objectives of the study 3 
5. Methodology of the study 3 
6. Scope and limitations of the study 4 
CHAPTER ONE 
1.0. SOCIAL MALAISE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 
A Theoretical Examination 
1.1. DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS 5 
1.1.1. 'Social Malaise' 5 
1.1.2. 'Crime' 7 
1.1.3 'Vandalism' 8 
1.1.3. 'Urban Neighborhoods' 8 
1.2. SOCIAL MALAISE / CRIME AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 9 
Different Ideologies on their Relationship 
1.2.1. Environmental Determinism 10 
1.2.2. Possibilism 11 
1.2.3. Probabilism 12 
1.2.4. Social Approach 13 
1.2.5. Cultural Approach 14 
1.2.6. Geographical Approach 15 
1.2.7. Holistic approach 16 
CHAPTER TWO 
2.0. SOCIAL MALAISE AND VANDALISM 
2.1. VANDALISM: DEFINITION 18 
2.1.1. Historical Definition 19 
2.1.2. Definitions by Researchers 19 
2.2. VANDALISM AS PROPERTY DESTRUCTION 
Motives and Meanings 20 
2.2.1. Destruction of Property as a Form of Rule Breaking 20 
2.2.2. Destruction of Property as a Form of Revenge 20 
2.2.3. Destruction of Property to Achieve Malicious Satisfaction 23 
2.2.4. Destruction of property in order to Achieve Political 
/ Ideological Targets 24 
2.2.5. Destruction of Property in order to Acquire Money / Property. 26 
i v 
2.2.6. Destruction of Property as Part of Play 27 
2.3. SOCIETY'S PERCEPTION TOWARDS PROPERTY DESTRUCTION 29 
2.3.1. Institutionalised Property Destruction 29 
2.3.1.1. Due to rituals / occasions 29 
2.3.1.2. Licensing 30 
2.3.1.3. Right of children 30 
2.3.2. Property Destruction: Normalized 31 
2.3.3. Property Destruction: A severe social Problem 32 
CHAPTER THREE 
3.0. APPROACHES TO PREVENT SOCIAL MALAISE AND VANDALISM 
Concepts and Prevention 
3.1. CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH THE ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN 34 
3.1.1. Territoriality 35 
3.1.2. Natural Surveillance 35 
3.1.3. Anonymity 36 
3.1.4. Alternative Escape Routes 37 
3.1.5. Defensible Space 37 
3.1.6. Defensible Space and Vandalism 39 
3.2. VANDALISM IN RELATION TO THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 40 
3.2.1. Aspects in Design Related to Vandalism 40 
3.2.1.1. Type of house 41 
3.2.1.2. Access, linkages and transition spaces 41 
3.2.1.3. Public and semi-public phenomena 44 
3.2.2. Social Aspects and Vandalism 46 
3.2.2.2. Child density 46 
3.2.1.2. Unemployment and poverty 47 
3.2.3. Prevention of vandalism; approaches in the local context 48 
CHAPTER FOUR 
4.0. SOCIAL MALAISE; OFFENCES AGAINST THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN 
HOUSING 
Detail Examination of Two Public Housing Schemes in Colombo 
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO THE CASE STUDIES 50 
4.2. CASE STUDY ONE -CMC FLATS AT JUMMAMUSJID ROAD 51 
4.2.1. Location 51 
4.2.2. Type of Housing 52 
4.2.3. Population Character 52 
4.2.4. Characteristics of the Built Environmen: 52 
4.2.5. General Observation of Offences against the 
Built Environment 53 
4.3. CASE STUDY TWO - MALIGAWATTA HOUSING SCHEME 53 
4.3.1. Location 54 
4.3.2. Type of Housing 54 
4.3.3. Population Character 55 
4.3.4. Characteristics of the Built Environmen 55 
v 
4.3.5. General Observations of Offences against the 
Built Environment 56 
4.4. DISTRIBUTION OF OFFENCES COMMON TO BOTH SCHEMES 56 
4.4.1. Graffiti 59 
4.4.2. Vandalism 66 
4.4.2.1. Damage to building elements 67 
4.4.2.2. Vandal damage to the services 73 
4.4.2.3. Damage to external elements 76 
4.4.3. Litter Dropping and Urine 79 
4.5. ANALYSIS OF THE OBSERVATIONS 82 
4.5.1. Socio-economic Factors 82 
4.5.1.1. Population density 82 
4.5.1.2. Poverty 84 
4.5.1.2. Unemployment 84 
4.5.1.3. Child density 85 
4.5.2. Built Environment Aspect 86 
4.5.2.1. Interior of Housing 87 
(I) Size Variables 87 
(ii) Circulation Variables 89 
4.5.2.2. Exterior of Housing 96 
(i) Spatial Organisation 96 
(ii) Layout of Open Spaces 98 
(iii) Layout of housing blocks 102 
(iv) Maintenance and appearance 103 
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
REFERENCES 
A 
v i 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
LIST OF TABLES 
Chapter Four 
4.1 - Type and degree of damage by graffiti, scribbling, damage to wall plaster 
and concrete louvers in CMC flats at Jumma Musjid road 59 
4.2 - Degree and rate of damage in different types of housing 
Maligawatta 60 
4.3 - Types of graffiti in Jumma Musjid flats 61 
4.4 - Different types of housing blocks in two schemes with number of floors 
dwelling units and staircases 87 
LIST OF CHARTS 
Chapter Four 
4.1 - Number of blocks having different causes for their graffiti in Maligawatta 64 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Chapter One 
1.1 - Typical distribution of burglary in a major city 15 
1.2 - Relationship between social malaise, crime, offences against the built 
environment and vandalism 16 
Chapter Three 
3.1 - Evolution of crime prevention through environmental design 34 
3.2 - Newman's defensible space hierarchy 45 
3.3 - Traditional pattern of direct access 45 
Chapter Four 
4.1 - Location plan of CMC flats at Jumma Musjid road 51 
4.2. - Layout plan of CMC flats at Jumma Musjid road 52 
4.3 - Location plan of Maligawatta housing scheme 54 
4.4 - Layout plan of Maligawatta housing scheme 55 
4.5 - Distribution of text measures in Jumma Musjid flats 57 
4.6 - Distribution of text measures in Maligawatta housing scheme 58 
v i i 
4.7 - Locations of highly vandalised public housing in Colombo 83 
4.8. - Typical plan of a housing block in Jumma Musjid flats 88 
4.9. - Entrance type of Jumma Musjid flats 89 
4.10 - Location and view of the staircase at the interconnection of blocks, 
'M', 'N', 'H' and 'G', 'J', 'H' in Maligawatta 91 
4.11 - Entrance / staircase type of shop houses in Maligawatta 91 
4.12 - The individual staircase type for blocks 'L', 'M', 'N', 'G', 'H', 'J' 
and 'K' of Maligawatta 92 
4.13 - Entrance/staircase type of 'C I'D' type of housing - Maligawatta 93 
4.14 - Entrance / staircase type in 'A' / 'B' type of housing - Maligawatta 93 
4.15 - Built and un-built areas of Jumma Musjid flats 98 
4.16 - Built and un-built areas of Maligawatta housing scheme 99 
4.17 - Layout and section of the net ball court with surrounded by housing at 
Maligawatta 100 
4.18 - Layout types of housing according to the vulnerability to text measures 103 
LIST OF PLATES 
Chapter One 
1.1 - Failed Utopia, destruction of mass housing, Oak and Eldon Gardens 
Birkenhead 10 
Chapter Two 
2.1 - Rule breaking, by children 21 
2.2.a - Property destruction as a form of revenge, the act 22 
2.2.b - The result 22 
2.3 - Vandalism in derelict buildings 23 
2.4 - Property destruction due to aggression and anger 24 
2.5 - Destruction of symbolically sacred property 24 
2.6 - Demolition of Vendome Column 25 
2.7 - Destruction of Buddha statues 25 
2.8 - Acquisitive destruction of property 26 
v i i i 
2.9 - Graffiti by children 28 
2.10 - Property destruction in a building site 28 
2.11 - Creative vandalism, by young boys 31 
2.12 - Graffiti, by a pervert 32 
Chapter Three 
3.1 - Heavily vandalised lift lobby in Philadelphia 39 
3.2 - Interior grounds of a public housing in Brooklyn, New York 40 
3.3 - The Gloucester Grove Estate, Southwark 42 
3.4 - Ground floor garages lack the surveillance 43 
3.5 - A deck access scheme in Loughborough Estate 43 
3.6 - Confused spatial organisation by having shared grounds 44 
3.7 - Littered roads having walls on either sides 44 
3.8.a - Part of railway court in Sunderland before partial demolition 45 
3.8.b - Top two storeys being demolished 46 
3.8.C - The converted houses after demolition 46 
Chapter Four 
4.1 - Graffiti as a form of self-expression and love, Jumma Musjid flats 61 
4.2 - Graffiti related to love, NHDA flats Siridhamma Mawatha 62 
4.3 - Graffiti as malicious carvings, Jumma Musjid flats 62 
4.4 - Graffiti related to politics, Jumma Musjid flats 62 
4.5 - Graffiti as a media of communication, NHDA flats- Siridhamma Mawatha 63 
4.6 - Graffiti by spray cans, Wanathamulla flats 63 
4.7 - Graffiti as creative art, Jumma Musjid flats 63 
4.8 - Graffiti accompanied by vandalism, Maligawatta housing scheme 64 
4.9 - Graffiti as malicious mud patches and scribbling, Maligawatta 64 
4.10 - Graffiti as self expression and love, Maligawatta 65 
4.11 - Graffiti in a highly vulnerable area, Maligawatta 65 
4.12 - Graffiti by a pervert, Maligawatta 65 
4.13 - Graffiti as part of play, Maligawatta 
i x 
66 
4.14 - Graffiti not as vandalism but as art, Maligawatta housing scheme 66 
4.15 - Destruction of concrete louvers by tethering goats, Jumma Musjid flats 67 
4.16 - Destruction of concrete louvers by hanging household items, Jumma Musjid 68 
4.17 - Graffiti and damage to the staircase, Jumma Musjid flats 68 
4.18 - Defaced walls by creating holes, Jumma Musjid flats 68 
4.19 - Prised off wall plaster, Jumma Musjid flats 69 
4.20 - Defaced corridor walls, Jumma Musjid flats 69 
4.21 - Vandalism accompanied by graffiti, Jumma Musjid flats 69 
4.22 - Malicious damage to staircases, Maligawatta housing scheme 70 
4.23 - Acquisitive vandalism, Maligawatta housing scheme 70 
4.24 - Severe damages done by drug addicts, Maligawatta housing scheme 70 
4.25 - Vandal damage to the glass panels in shop houses, Maligawatta 71 
4.26 - Smashed glass panels in NHDA flats at Siridhamma Mawatha 71 
4.27 - Community hall, Jumma Musjid flats 72 
4.28 - Vandalised openings of the community hall, Jumma Musjid flats 72 
4.29 - Vandalised front door of the community hall, Jumma Musjid flats 72 
4.30 - Broken toilet fittings of the community hall, Jumma Musjid flats 73 
4.31 - Acquisitive vandalism; vandalised electricity service, Maligawatta 74 
4.32 - Malicious damage to the electrical wires in shop houses, Maligawattta 74 
4.33 - Vandalised bulb protectors, 'C type of housing, Maligawatta 74 
4.34 - Vandalised down pipes and service room, Maligawatta 75 
4.35 - Vandalised refuse chute and concrete louvers, Jumma Musjid flats 76 
4.36 - Graffiti ridden refuse chutes, Maligawatta 76 
4.37 - Vandalised play equipment in a Kiddies comer, Maligawatta 77 
4.38 - Damaged sign board, Wanathamulla 77 
4.39 - Vandalised boundary fences and trees in forest patches, Maligawatta 77 
4.40 - Broken entrance and boundary wall of the neighbourhood park, Maligawatta 78 
4 
X 
4.41 - Vandalised roads, curbs and pavement tiles, Maligawatta 78 
4.42 - Conscious damages to the gable wall to fix extract fans, Maligawatta 78 
4.43 - Litter collected at 'urban forests', Maligawatta 79 
4.44 - Undefined nooks and comers filled with litter, Jumma Musjid flats 80 
4.45 - Litter gathered at vandalised refuse chutes, Jumma Musjid flats 80 
4.46 - Occupant's attempt at making a clean surrounding, Jumma Musjid flats 80 
4.47 - Littered and urinated spaces under the staircases, Maligawatta 81 
4.48 - Boundary walls affected by litter, graffiti and urine, Maligawatta 81 
4.49 - Undefined space under the overhead walkway, Maligawatta 81 
4.50 - Urinated and littered rear spaces, Jumma Musjid flats 82 
4.51 - Unemployed gangs at Wanathamulla housing scheme 84 
4.52 - Raring pigeons in the public space, Jumma Musjid flats 85 
4.53 - Poultry as an income generating activity, Maligawatta 85 
4.54 - Child density positively correlates with text measures, Jumma Musjid flats 86 
4.55 - Undefined spaces encroached by children 86 
4.56 - Eight storey housing in the highly vulnerable area, Maligawatta 89 
4.57 - Entrance having through routes, leads to high rates of offences, 
Jumma Musjid flats 90 
4.58 - Exterior view of a vandalised staircase, Jumma Musjid flats 90 
4.59 - Jut out separate staircase type of 1", 'M', 'N', 'G', 'H', 'J' and 'K' blocks 
In Maligawatta 92 
4.60 - Illegal constructions of boundary walls recess the entrance 94 
4.61 - Gloomy 'tunnel effect' corridor at Jumma Musjid flats 96 
4.62 - Overhead walkways in Maligawatta housing scheme 96 
4.63 - Peoples attitudes towards public spaces in Jumma Musjid flats 97 
4.64 - Illegal constructions by ground floor occupants obstruct the access to 
the staircase 97 
4.65 - Illegal land ownership prevents litter collected at roadside, Maligawatta 97 
4.66 - Contrasting appearance of the stair well wall and houses, Jumma Musjid flats 98 
x i 
4.67 - children playing at the entrance lobby, Jumma Musjid flats 99 
4.68 - Illegal constructions at rear spaces restrict service access, 
Jumma Musjid flats 101 
4.69 - Use of shot-cut paths damages the forest patches, Maligawatta 101 
4.70 - Illegal and disordered constructions restricts the access to the staircase 
Jumma Musjid flats 102 
4.71 - Uninterested facade treatment, Bluemandal flats 103 
4.72 - Poorly maintained rear spaces, NHDA flats Siridhamma Mawatha 104 
4.73 - Rundown appearance and less maintained rear spaces, Maligawatta 104 
x i i