INVESTIGATION OF HIGH VOLUME 
BID MATERIALS AS POTENTIAL COLOURANTS 
AND FINISH CHEMICALS FOR FIBROUS 
SUBSTRATES 
 
 
 
BY 
V.G. Samudrika Wijayapala 
 
 
 
 
The dissertation was submitted to the Department of Textile and Clothing 
Technology of the University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka in partial fulfillment of the 
requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 
 
 
 
 
Department of Textile and Clothing Technology, 
Faculty of Engineering 
University of Moratuwa 
Moratuwa, 
Sri Lanka. 
 
 
2010 
 
94512 
  
Abstract 
 
The modern consumer (1990 onwards) is aware of the toxic chemical residues on 
textiles/garments (resulting from dyes and chemicals used) which can have 
carcinogenic/ dermatological and allergic effects on the wearer, especially because 
textiles are in contact with human skin for 24 hours of the day. The second aspect 
deals with the 'pollution' (air/water) at each of all stages in production of textiles. The 
third concern is about the 'ecological' problems during disposal (of garbage / on 
incineration). 
 
The aim of this research is to show feasibility of producing high quality natural dyes 
from plants, creating new opportunities for both farmers and the fabric / garment 
industry in line with the current consumer trends towards eco-friendly natural 
products. The direct national benefit is shown. Environmental and economical 
factors too need to be considered to make this viable in the long run. 
 
Investigation of the traditional dyeing techniques and dye producing plants with 
special reference to Sri Lanka, and development of natural dyes and investigation of 
their suitability as textile dyes were the two major objectives of this research study. 
 
Research investigations based on the comprehensive analysis of 10 best dye yielding 
plants which have been chosen from 47 dye yielding plants in Sri Lanka are 
presented. The available raw material spectrum had been reviewed. The ten (10) 
selected species are Kothala Himbutu (Salacia reticulata), Weniwal tCoscinium 
fenestratum), Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), Mangus tGarcinia mangostana), 
Big onion skin (Allium cepa) , Marigold (Tegetus erecta), Tea (Camellia sinensis), 
Jak (Artocarpus heterophyllus), Walmadata (Rubia cordifolia) and Turmeric 
(Curcuma domestica). Some of the above plant extracts have not been used before in 
textile dyeing. 
 
 
  
Environmental performance was another aspect of the research. Results from effluent 
characteristics of best dyeing solutions reveal significant reduction in pollution 
potential. The concept of ready to use dye concentrates is also presented. 
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DECLARATION 
I Samudrika Wijayapala , hereby certify that the work described in this dissertation was carried 
out by me in the Departments of Textile and Clothing Technology and Chemical and Process 
Engineering of the University of Moratuwa . Sri Lanka and Indian Institute of Technology . 
Kanpur. India between January 2004 and January 2010. This research project was carried out in 
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. This dissertation is 
the result of my O\Vn worl-. and includes nothing '' hich is the outcome of \\OrJ.. done in 
collaboration. except where otherwise stated. "\Jeither this thesis nor any part thereof has C\'er been 
submitted for an_> degree at this or any other University. 
~~~L4a.pc.\a. 
Candidate 
U.G. Samudrika Wijayapala 
Reg. No. 4 I 8020 
23rd rebruary 20 10 
I 
We certify the statement above is true to best of our knowledge and that the dissertation is ready 
liisOll'h ~' / 
Professor Ajith de Ah' is 
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering 
Research Supervisor 
Former Senior Lecturer Grade I 
Department ofTextile and Clothing Technology 
University of Moratuwa 
Date: .~.~ . 9.2- . ~ .~'P fO ~ 
.... 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
"Authorship of any sort is a fantastic indulgence of the ego. It is well no doubt, to 
reflect on lww much one owes to others- J.K.Ga/braith" 
In an endeavor of this nature there are many who have helped and given advice in 
their own ways. However. certain names come to my mind which I should speci fically 
mention. 
First and foremost m) sincere thanks and gratitude to my research supervisors 
Professor Ajith de Alwis. Department of Chemical and Process fngineering and Mr. 
NGH de Silva. Former Senior Lecturer, Department oJ 'Texti le and Clothing 
Technology of the Universi ty of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, for introducing me to the 
project and for their infectious enthusiasm, able supervision, valuable guidance and 
encouragement throughout the research work. 
My heartfelt thanks to Dr. Padma S. Vankar. Principal researcher at the Facility of 
Ecological and Analytical Laboratory. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur. India, 
for providing me with guidance and sample analysis facilities . 
... 
M) sincere thanks to Dr. TSS Jaya-wardane. Research Co-ordinator of Department of 
Textile and Clothing Technology. Univcrsit) of Moratuv.a, for encouraging and 
supporting me in every aspect to compiete my research. I would like to thank to Mr. 
VA Nandasena for his vital presence and contributions in the progress revie-w 
committee as Chairman and the valuable guidance and suggestions provided to make 
this study a success. 
It is with sincere thanks that I would recall the helping hands offered by Head of 
Department. Dr. Sandun Fernando and all the staff members of the Department of 
Textile and Clothing Technology of University of Moratuwa, to complete this 
research study successfull y. 
I would like to thank Mr. Chandana Malalanayake. Ms. Dilum Dissanayake. Staff 
Technical Officers and Mr. W. Chandradasa. Lab attendant of the Wet Processing 
Laboratory. Department of Textile and Clothing Technology. University of Moratuwa 
for supporting me in laborator) work. 
Ill 
I also wish to express my thanks to Ms.Vijitha Rathnayake and Mr. AL Amarasckara 
Mr. Sanjccwa Silva , Ms.Saroja , Mr.Nishantha for assisting in the collection of raw 
materials for my research work. I also wish to extend my thanks to academic staff 
members, Mr. NL Wanigatungc & Dr. WDG Lanarolle for helping me to complete 
literature survey of my research. 
I extend my acknowledgement to Ms. Kusum Kapuruge, Ms. Padma Rajapaksha, Mr. 
GHD Wijesena and Ms.Shashika Perera. Ms. Mihiri Fernando for the support given in 
numerous ·ways. 
I acknowledge Mr. Muditha Dayaratnc , Managing Directo~, · Colourmate (Pvt) Ltd .. 
and Brandix Finishing Limited , Pannala for providing labrics for dyeing trials. I 
extend my sincere thanks to Mrs. Seneviratne, Mr. Waduge and Mr. Viraj from 
Atomic Energy Authority of Sri Lanka for providing me facilities and assistance in 
their Laboratory. 
I would like to thank the library staff of University of Moratuwa, National Museum. 
Industrial Technology Institute, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, University of 
Indigenous medicine and Public Library of Colombo for their tremendous support in 
finding the literature for the study, which would have been much difficult without 
their committed service. 
No adequate words can be found to express my feelings for my husband Anura 
Wijayapala. my children and parents. and sisters for assisting my work in numerous 
ways. I should specially mention my elder daughter for assisting me to collect raw 
materials for analysis. sincerely acknowledge the blessings, guidance, 
encouragement and moral support, cooperation and sacrifice of my parents & my 
family. 
lV 
Samudrika Wijayapala 
University of Moratuwa 
Sri Lanka. 
20.02.2010 
DECLARATION 
ABSTRACT 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
CONTE~TS 
ABREVIATIO~S 
LIST OF FIGLRES 
LIST OFT ABLES 
CONTENTS 
Chapter One- INTRODUCTION AN D OVERVIEW 
1.1 The need for natural dyes 
1.2 Present situation & justification for the study 
1.3 Objectives 
.1 
1.4 Scope and overview of the research work into natural dyes 
Chapter Two- LITERATURE SURVEY 
2.1 I Iistory of colouration 
2.1.1 Water colour painting 
2.1.2 Tempera painting 
2.1.3 Fresco painting 
2.1.4 Oil painting 
2.2 Evolution of synthetic dyes 
2.3 Environmental aspects of synthetic dyes 
2.4 Textile colourants 
2.5 Chemical basis of textile colouration 
... 
2.6 Classification of synthetic textile colourants 
2. 7 Natural dyes 
2.8 Classification of natural dyes 
2.8.1 Classification based on origin 
2.8.2 Classification based on chemical nature 
2.8.3 Classification based on application 
2.8.4 Classification based on colour 
2.8.5 Sources of natural dyes on the basis of colour 
v 
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2. 9 Extraction methods of natural dyes 
2.10 Natural dyeing 
2.1 0.1 Advantages of natural dyes 
2.11 Mordants and mordanting 
2.1 1.1 Tannins and tannic acid 
2.11.2 Application of tannins 
2.1 1.3 Metal mordants 
2.11 A Oil mordants 
2.11.5 Mordanting 
2.12 Fastness properties of natural dyes 
2.13 Environmental aspects of natural dyeing , 
2.14 Comparison of environmental and safety aspects oflatura1 and 
Synthetic dyes 
2.15 Natural dyes and dyeing practices in Sri Lanka 
2.16 History of dye practices 
,. 
2.16.1 Mural Painting 
2.16.2 Apsara paintings 
2.16.3 The caves and paintings 
2.16.4 Robe dyeing 
2.16.5 Vfat wea\ing 
2.16.6 Masks 
2.16.7 Batiks 
2.16.8 Lacquer wor!.. 
2.16.9 Body painting 
2.16.10 !lair dyeing 
2.17 I land Loom weaving 
... 
2.17.1 The Moor weavers of Marudamunai · 
2.17.2 The cotton weavers ofTalagune 
2.18 Recent developments of natural dyes 
2.19 Estimates of dye requirements 
Vl 
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Chapter Three- STUOY METHODOLOGY 
3.1 Materials and methods 61 
3 .1.1 Literature review 61 
3.1.2 Robe dyeing 61 
3.1.3 Selection of dye yielding hio-materials for naturaldye extraction 63 
3.2 Dyeing tests and quality criteria 63 
3.3 Selection of fabric material to he dyed 65 
3.3.1 Microscopic features 65 
3.3.2 Physical properties 65 
3.4 Preparation of cloth for dyeing (fabric pre treatment) 66 
3.5 Extraction of colour giving parts from the bio-materials 
3.5.1 Drying 
3.5.2 Grinding 
3.5.3 Sieving 
3.6 Extraction of colourants 
3.6.1 Aqueous extraction 
3.6.2 Solvent extraction 
3.6.3 Sonicator extraction 
3.7 Filtration 
3.8 \-1ordanting 
3.8.1 Selection of mordants 
3.8.2 Synthetic mordants 
3.8.3 Natural mordants 
3.9 Dyeing under different conditions 
3.10 Techniques used for dyeing 
3.1 0.1 Conventional dyeing 
3.1 0.2 Sonicator dyeing 
3.1 1 Evaluation of performance properties 
3.11.1 Colourfastncss to washing 
3.11.2 Colourfastncss to rubbing 
3.11.3 Colour Fastness to light 
3.11.4 Colour Fastness to perspiration 
3.12 Equipment used for performance analysis 
VII 
... 
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3.13 Measurements and analysis 77 
3.13.1 Colour measurements 77 
3. 13.2 Evaluation of parameters related to colour matching system 78 
3.13.3 Measurement of dye exhaustion 79 
3.14 Equipment used for analysis 79 
3.15 Economic consideration 79 
3.16 Preparation of Ready- to- Usc Oye Concentrates 80 
3.17 Market potential in Sri Lanka 80 
13.17.1 Analysis of questionnaire 81 
3.18 b aluation of enYironmental impact 81 
3.19 A colour catalogue - 81 
.l 
Chapter Four- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
4.1 Indigenous dyeing and dyeing methods 82 
4.1.1 Traditional robe dyeing process 83 
4.2 Investigation of dye yielding bio-materials for natural dye Extraction 84 
4.3 Selection of fabric material to be dyed 
4.3.1 Characteristics of cotton fabric 
4.3.2 Characteristics of silk. fabric 
... 
4.3.3 Characteristics of \\OOI yarn 
4.4 Extraction of colourants from the bio-materials 
4.4.1 Grinding & Sieving 
4.5 Extraction of colourants 
4.6 Optimisation of dyeing conditions 
4.7 Mordanting 
4.8 Evaluation of fastness properties 
4.9 Selection of dye yielding plants 
4.10 Evaluation matrix and tested samples in the lahoratory 
4.11 List of the plant materials selected 
4.12 Detailed analysis of ten selected resource streams 
4.12.1 Rambutan (.\"ephelium lappaceum) 
4.12.2 \llarigold (Tegetll.\ erec:ta) 
4.12.3 Kothala (Salacia retic:ulata) 
4.12.4 Weniwal (( "osciniumfenestratum) 
VIII 
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4.12.5 Big onion (Allium cepa) 114 
4.12.6 Mangus (Garcinia mangos/ana) 120 
4.12. 7 Jak fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) 125 
4.1 2.8 Tea (Came/ia sinensis) 131 
4.12.9 Walmadata (Ruhia co-ord(fvlia) 137 
4.12.1 0 Turmeric (Curcuma domestica) 143 
4.13 Environmental emission characteristics of elnuents (COD Analysis) 148 
4.14 Basic economic analysis 149 
4.15 Storage of dyes (Preparation of RTDC of natural dye) 150 
4.16 Opportunity to use bio materials for similar colours with different mordants 
and substrates 
4.17 Analysis of questionnaire 
4.18 Ways of finding resources 
4.19 The views and comments from the exhibitions 
I 
Chapter Five- CONCL USIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
5.1 Findings ofthe study 
5.2 Analysis of individual dye yielding plant materials 
5.3 Positive Environmental Performance 
5.4 Recommendations 
5.5 Conclusion 
- Questionnaire 
.... 
ANNEXU RES 
ANNEXURE A 
ANNEXURE B 
ANNEXURE C 
- A I ist of bio-materials used for natural dye sources 
- Sieve analysis data 
REFERENCES 
ix 
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162 
LIST OFT ABLES 
Table Page 
2.1 Worlddyestuffusage 1992(Ilolme,2002) 14 
2.2 Estimated annual global consumption of cellulosic dyes (Holme , 2002) 14 
") ., 
-·.) 
2.4 
2.5 
2.6 
2.7 
2.8 
2.9 
2.10 
2.11 
2.12 
2.13 
3.1 
., ") 
.>.-
3.3 
3.4 
3.5 
3.6 
3.7 
4.1 
4.2 
4.3 
4.4 
4.5 
4.6 
4.7 
4.8 
Pollution potential of some of the dyes and chemicals used in the textile 
industry 
Classification of dyes according to the dyeing methods 
1\umber of natural dyes for dffercnt hues (Pardeshiand PauL 2002) 
Global sources of natural red dyes (I3hav.:na, 200 I) 
Global sources of natural blue dyes (13ha'Wna, 200 I) I 
Global sources of natural black dyes (Bhawna, 2001) 
Global sources of natural yellow dyes (Bhawna , 200 l) 
Global sources of natural green dyes (Bhawna, 2001) 
Global sources of natural brown dyes (Bhawna , 2001) 
Global sources of natural orange/peach dyes (Bhawna , 200 I) 
US companies selling natural dyes through internet 
The main requirements for a basic set of natural dyes 
... 
Experimental liquor volumes 
Standard reference numbers for fastness tasting 
Wash fastness (WF) and rub fastness (RF) ratings 
Light fastness (LF) Ratings 
Equipment used for performance evaluation 
Equipment used in the performance analysis of dyed materials 
Characteristics of cotton fabrics 
Characteristics of silk fabrics 
Characteristics of wool yarns 
Sieve analysis data for N. lappacium sample 
Dye uptake values for different dyeing techniques 
Characteristics of selected natural dyes in Sri Lanka 
Selected bio- materials for detailed studies 
Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed \\ ith methanolic extract of 
X.lappaceum 
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4.9 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
N. /appaceum 96 
4.10 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed with methanolic extract of 
N. lappaceum 97 
4.11 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn under 
conventional conditions of metal modanting with methanolic extract of 
N.lappaceum 97 
4.12 Characterization of em ironmcntal impact 99 
4.13 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract ofT. erect a I 0 I 
4.14 Characteristics for silk. fabric dyed -with methanolic extract ofT. erectu 
4.15 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed -with methanolic extract ofT. erecta 
4.16 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, si lk fabrics and woof yarn under 
conventional dyeing with different metal modanting with methanolic 
extract ofT. erectu 
4.17 Characterization of environmental impact 
4.18 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
S. reticulutu 
4.19 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
S. reticula/a ... 
4.20 Characteristics for v.ool yarn dyed vvith methanolic extract of 
S. reticulata 
4.21 Fastness properties of dyed cotton. silk fabrics and wool yam under 
conventional Dyeing of metal mocfanting v. ith methanolic extract of 
S. reticulata 
4.22 Characterization of environmental impact 
4.23 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
C feneslratum 
4.24 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
C. fenestratum 
4.25 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed with methanolic extract of 
C. fenestratum 
4.26 Fastness properties of dyed cotton. silk fabrics and wool yam under 
comentional heating with different metal modanting with methanolic 
extract of C. fenestra/urn 
XI 
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Ill 
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4.27 Characterization of environmental impact 
4.28 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of A. cepa 
4.29 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of A. cepa 
4.30 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed with mcthanolic extract of A. cepa 
4.31 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn under 
conventional conditions of metal modanting with methanolic extract of 
A. cepa 
4.32 Characterization of environmental impact 
4.33 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
G. mangos/ana 
4.34 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract qf: 
G. mangos/ana l 
4.35 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed with methanolic extract of 
G. mangostana 
4.36 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yam under 
conventional heating with different metal modanting with methanolic 
extract of G. mangos/ana 
4.37 Characterization of environmental impact 
4.38 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with rtl.ethanolic extract of 
A. heterophy/lus 
4.39 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed"' ith methanolic extract of 
A. heterophyllus 
4.40 Characteristics for wool yarns dyed V\ith methanolic extract of 
A. heterophyllus 
4.41 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn under 
conventional conditions of metal modanting with methanolic extract 
of A. heterophy/lus 
4.42 Characterization of enviromcntal impact 
4.43 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
C sinensis 
4.44 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
C. sinensis 
4.45 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed '' ith methanolic extract of 
C. sinensis 
XII 
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4.46 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn under 
conventional dyeing with di ffcrcnt metal modanting with methanolic 
extract of C. sinensis 
4.47 Characterization of environmental impact 
4.48 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with mcthanolic extract of 
R. cordifolia 
4.49 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed \.Vith methanolic extract of 
R. cordifolia 
4.50 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed"' ith methanolic extract of 
R. cordifolia 
4.51 Fastness properties of dyed cotton. silk fabrics and wool )'am under 
conventional heating with different metal modanting t'ith methanolic 
extract of R. cord{folia 
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4.52 Characterization of environmental impact 142 
4.53 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
C. domestica 
4.54 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
C. domestica 
4.55 Characteristics for wool yam dyed with.rnethanolic extract of 
C. domestica 
4.56 Fastness properties of dyed cotton. silk fabrics and wool yam under 
conventional conditions of metal modanting with methanolic extract of ( ·. 
domes fica 
4.57 Characterization of environmental impact 
4.58 COD data Summary 
4.59 Tolerance limits for effluents from textile industry discharge into inland 
surface waters 
4.60 Cost of natural dyes to get standard depths 
4.61 Catergorisation of colour obtain from bio-materials 
4.62 Bio-materials with similar colours 
4.63 Bio materials with different mordants 
5.1 Bio materials with different mordants 
5.2 Categorisation of colour obtained from bio-materials 
5.3 Dye exhaustion percentages of I 0 bio-materials 
X Ill 
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 
Peruvian textiles 2.1 
2.2 
2.3 
2.4 
Textile dyeing in morocco 
Classification of textile colourants 
Puskola Book from Ambakkc Muhandiram 
2.5 Apsara paintings at Sigiriya 
2.6 Cave paintings at Dambulla temple 
2.7 Durnbara mats 
2.8 Masks painting in Sri Lanka 
2.9 Laquor painted items 
2.10 Body paintings by Henna 
2.11 A woman at the loom 
2.12 Natural dyed yarns 
2.13 Natural dyed woven saree 
2.14 Industrial scale natural dyeing 
2.15 Natural dye kitchen 
2.16 Spread of activities involving, natural dyes ip Sri Lanka 
3.1 a.b Dyeing of robe and squeezing 
3.2 Dyestuff extraction and dyeing step 
3.3 Laboratory drying oven 
3.4 Industrial grinding machine 
3.5 Sieve analyser 
3.6 Aqueous extraction of R. cord!f'olia 
3.7 Solvent extraction unit 
3.8 Sonicator 
3.9 Vacuum filtration unit 
3.10 Selection of optimum conditions for dyeing 
3.11 Temperature time diagram for dyeing Process 
3.12 Conventional dyeing in sample dyeing machine 
3.13 CIE. L.a.b colour co-ordinate system 
l 
4.1 Availability of natural dye sources regional distribution 
4.2 Developed process tlo\v diagram for traditional robe dyeing 
XIV 
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4.3 Traditional robe dyed fabrics in the laboratory 
4.4 Finely ground particles and their aqueous extracts 
4.5 Dye uptake for bio-materials by different dyeing methods 
4.6 Dyeing conditions 
4.7a,b Raw N. lappaceum Fruit & dried pcricarps 
4.8 UV-Vis spectrum ofmethanolic extract of N. lappaceum 
4.9 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of N. /appaceum 
4.10 Change in K/S values \.\ith different mordants for sil fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of lv·. lappaceum 
4.11 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yams,after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of N. lappaceum l 
4.12 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of N. lappaceum with 
di1Tcrent mordants 
4.13a,bFresh T erecta and dried petals 
4.14 UV -Vis spectrum of methanolic extract ofT erecta 
4.15 Change in K/S values with di ITerent mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract ofT erecta 
4.16 Change in K/S values with different mordant~ for silk fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract ofT erecta 
4.17 Change in K/S values\.\ ith different mordants for wool yams after 
dyeing with methanolic extract ofT erecta 
4.18 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic e){tract ofT erecta with different 
mordants 
4.19a.b Leaves of S. reticula/a and bark 
4.20 UV-Vis spectrum of mcthanolic extract of S. reticula/a 
4.21 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of S. reticula/a 
4.22 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fabrics after 
dyeing with mcthanolic extract of S. reticula/a 
4.23 Change in K/S values 'With different mordants for wool yams after 
dyeing ·with methanolic extract of S. reticulata 
4.24 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of S. reticula/a with 
different mordants 
XV 
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4.25a,bC. .fenestratum plant and dried bark 
4.26 UV-Vis spectrum of methanol ic extract of C fenestral urn 
4.27 Change in K/S values with dil'lcrcnt mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of C . .fimestratum 
4.28 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fabrics after dyeing 
110 
110 
Ill 
with methanolic extract of C. fimestratum Ill 
4.29 Change in K/S values \.\ith dilTerent mordants for wool yams after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of C. fenestratum 112 
4.30 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of C. .fenestratum with 
different mordants 
4.31a.bA. cepa bulb and skin 
4.32 UV-Vis spectrum ofmethanolic extract of A. cepa l 
4.33 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
114 
115 
115 
dyeing with methanolic extract of A. cepa I 16 
4.34 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of A .cepa 116 
4.35 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yams after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of A. cepa 117 
4.36 Fabric samples dyed with methanol ic extrac.t of A. cepa ·with different 
mordants 
4.37a.bfresh fruit of G. mangos! ana and dried peri carp 
4.38 UV-Vis spectrum of methanolic extract of G. mangostana 
4.39 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics 
after dyeing with methanolic extract of G. mungostana 
4.40 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk 
fabrics after dyeing with methanolic extract of G. mangostana 
4.41 Change in K/S values with diflcrcnt mordants for wool 
119 
120 
120 
121 
122 
yarns after dyeing with methanol ic extract of G. mangos/ana 122 
4.42 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of G. mangostana with 
different mordants ; 124 
4.43a.bA. heterophyllus plant and saw dust 125 
4.44 lJV-Vis spectrum of methanolic extract of A. heterophyllus bark 126 
4.45 Change in K/S 'alues ""'ith different mordants for cotton 
fabrics after dyeing with methanolic extract of A. heterophyllus 126 
XVI 
4.46 Change in K!S values with different mordants for silk fabrics 
after dyeing with mcthanolic extract of A. heterophyllus 127 
4.47 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yams 
after dyeing with methanolic extract of A. heterophyllu 128 
4.48 Fabric samples dyed with mcthanolic extract of A. heterophyl/us wilh 
different mordants 130 
4.49a.bFresh tea (C. sinensis) leaves and dried tea leaves 131 
4.50 UV-Vis spectrum of mcthanolic extract of C. sinensis 131 
4.51 Change in K/S values \\ith difTcrent mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of C. sinensis 
4.52 Change in K!S values with different mordants for silk fabric after dyeing 
I 
with methanolic extract of ( ·. sinensis 
4.53 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yarns after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of C. sinensis 
4.54 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of C. sinensis with different 
mordants 
4.55a,b R. cord((olia Plant and dried chips 
4.56 UV-Vis spectrum of methanolic extract of R. cordifolia 
4.57 Change in K/S values"' ith different mordants for cotton fabric after with 
132 
133 
134 
136 
137 
137 
dyeing methanolic extract of R. cordi(olia 138 
4.58 Change in K/S values v.ith different mordants for silk fabric after dyeing 
with mcthanolic extract of R. cordijiJiia 139 
4.59 Change in K!S values \\ith different mordants for wool yarns after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of R. cord(folia 140 
4.60 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of R.cordifolia with 
different mordants 142 
4.61 a.b C. domes fica plant and root 143 
4.62 UV-Vis spectrum of methanolic extract of C. domestica 143 
4.63 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanol ic extract of C. domeslica 144 
4.64 Change in K/S values v\ith diiTcrcnt mordants for silk fabrics after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of C. domeslic:a 
4.65 Change in K/S values "' ith different mordants for wool ) ams after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of C. dorneslica 
XVII 
145 
145 
4.66 Fabric samples dyed with mcthanolic extract of C. domeslica with 
different mordants 147 
4.67 Ready to use Dye Concentrates (RTDF) of natural dyes 151 
4.68 Analysis of questionnaire 153 
4.69 Sourcing resources 154 
4.70 Some views of the exhibition 155 
l 
... 
XVIII 
AATCC 
AD 
BASF 
BC 
BOD 
BMICH 
CD 
Cl 
CIELAB 
COD 
DNA 
ESCAP 
FTIR 
ICI 
ICP 
IR 
ISO 
K tS 
LF 
MLR 
MT 
A 
ND 
owf 
RTDC 
RF 
T!\ 
UV-Vis 
\VF 
\\-HO 
ABBREVIATIONS 
American Association of Textile Chemists and Colourists 
Anno Domini - A Iter Death 
Badischc Anilin und Soda Fabrik (German chemical products 
co 1111 w flJ'J 
Before Christ 
Biochemical 0\.ygen Demand 
Bandaranayal.c \11cmorial International Conference Hall 
Compact Dis!. 
Colour lndc.\ 
( 'ommission Internal ionale d'Edairage 
Chemical Oxygen Demand 
Dcoxyribo Nucleic Acid 
l 
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific 
Fourier Transform In l'ra Red spectroscopy 
Imperial Chemical Industries 
Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission 
Spectrophotometer 
Infra-red 
International Standard Organisl'Hion 
Relationship bet,,een Absorption and Scattering Spectrum 
Light Fastness 
Material to Liquor Ratio 
Metric tonncs 
Not Applicable 
ot Detected 
On Weight or Fabric 
Ready to Dye Concentrate 
Rubbing Fastness 
Tannic acid 
Ultra Violet Visible Spectroscopy 
Wash Fastness 
\\ orld Health Organisation 
\I\ 
Chapter One 
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVI EW 
1.1 The need for natural dyes 
··the Sri Lankan garment industry is trying to differentiate itself from the low cost 
competition in international markets by positioning itself as an ·ethical manufacturing 
designation·. The industry has already launched an international campaign called 
'"Garments without Guilt"'. The campaign is trying to raise awareness intcrnationall) 
about Sri Lanka· s much higher labour and environmental standards. compared to other 
lower cost. garment manufacturing countries. In 2007. earnings from garment exports 
reached to US$ 3.2 billion. The industry also claims it has reduced its import 
component and that domestic value addition now stands at 50 % /ompared to 25 % in 
the 1970's. The industry remains the largest employer in manufacturing. providing 
direct employment to an estimated 270,000 people mainly young women from rural 
parts of the country" (FT. 2008. Oct.). 
Textile and garment industry is an important economic activity with more than 40% 
contribution to the Sri Lankan economy. Industrial exports expanded by 10% in 2007. 
largely supported by a marked increase in the earnings from exports of gannents and 
textiles. Exports of garments and textiles continue tb be the largest source of foreign 
exchange earnings for Sri Lanka (Central Bank. 2007). Dyes are an important process 
requirement for which the country spends about 8.5 mn US~ annually. Almost all dyes 
presently used for textile dyeing arc of synthetic origin \Vhich is imported to the 
. 
country. However, in Sri Lanka historically, textile dyeing has been through natural 
dyes. 
Mother nature supplies an abundance or bri lliant colours read ily available to anyone's 
enjoyment. Dye materials (such as, onion skins, marigold fl owers, and black tea etc.,) 
can be easi ly found in our backyard and in our kitchens. Natural dyes comprise or 
dyes and pigments that are obtained from animal and vegetable matter \\ithout 
chemical processing. 
~atural dyes are extracted from roots: barks, llowcrs. lea\ es. stems. berries. lichens. 
mushrooms. vegetables. animals and minerals. Their colour fastness is achieved by 
using a mordant such as a metal in powder form like copper. iron or tin or with natural 
mordants such as vinegar and salt. 
Natural dyes in vogue during ancient days were indigo for dark blue I light blue, 
pomegranate rind for yellow/brown/green, lac for scarlet I crimson I purple. jak fruit 
heartwood for yellow I green, manjistha root for rust red, myrobalan (Aralu) for khaki 
t green I black (Internet, I). 
With the discovery of the first chemical dye in the mid nineteenth century, natural 
dyes were slowly superseded. Until this time both the dyer and the printer had been 
completely dependant on natural dyes. 
Although dyeing with natural dyes has not received the due attention of scientists as 
well as of industrialists. recently the textile industry is being confronted more '' ith 
enquiries on the theme of "'dyeing with natural dyes". The use of nfittlral colours that 
' 
should be assumed to have given way to the synthetic dyes oler 140 years ago is 
today once again a matter of topical interest due to the following reasons (Internet, 2). 
(a) Within the textile manufacturing chain, wet processing is clearly identified as 
having a potential adverse effect on the environment. ln fact one of the major 
problems threatening the textile industry today is environmental pollution, arising 
out of the wet processing of the textiles. The production of synthetic dyes involves 
many violent reactions. which arc conducted at high temperature and pressure, 
using much hazardous petroleum based pri.tnary chemicals as well as the 
production of hazardous intermediates. It is high time that the over utilisation of 
synthetic dyestuffs should be thought about in the context of health of the people 
and environment. In this regard some European countries have introduced a ban 
on certain azo dyes. which have been found to be carcinogenic. It is also noted to 
realize that about 2/3 or more of all synthetic dyes are azo and many more of them 
may be listed as carcinogenic in time to come. In this context, the day that the 
importance of natural dyes as possible alternatives to at least some of the synthetic 
dyes would not be very far. Further the recent realization that many intermediates 
and chemicals used in production of synthetic dyes are toxic and thus hazardous to 
human health as well as to the environment, has led to the revival of interest in the 
potentially non-toxic, biodegradable and ceo-friendly natural dyes. 
(b) The lower possibility of allergenic reactions to the consumer by textile materials 
dyed with natural dyes together '' ith its possibility of producing unique and 
fascinating colours which arc not achievable \\ith synthetic dyes are twt1 other 
2 
important factors for the revival of natural dye usage regardless of its high cost 
and other disadvantages. 
(c) Although synthetic dyes have now superseded the natural dyes in the industrial 
field. certain natural dyes derived from plants are still of some commercial 
importance in developing countries. One advantage in the use of natural dyes is 
that various tints and s~ades may be obtained from a single dye by combining it 
\\ith different mordants. 
(d) Some natural dyes such as indigo from lndig(~(era sp. are softer and more 
permanent colour than S}nthetic dyes such as aniline. Eg. The famous Persian rugs 
and carpets in which natural dyes arc used. 
(c) Natural dyes come out as a good alternative to the em ironrnentaf pollution arising 
from synthetic dyes but also provide low toxicity and allergic reactions while 
giving unique and fascinating colours which are not achievable from synthetic 
dyes. 
Earlier. understanding of dyeing techniques and their applications was empirical and 
\\as not backed by scientific reasoning and therefore natural dyeing had developed 
essentially as a folk art. I lowever in recent times the dyeing technique is interpreted 
on sound scientific principles. where the interaction baween the dye and the substrate 
is well understood. This has developed an interest on natural dyeing techniques. which 
were earlier disregarded by the high paced world (Internet. 3). 
1.2 Present situation and justification of the study 
. 
Sri Lankan textile sector is a vibrant and a dynamic industry sector. With 300 garment 
industries at present in Sri Lanka. dyeing is an important process activity in this 
industry segment. 
With the revival of natural dye usage in the world as a solution to the enhanced 
environmental pollution arising out of the wet processing of textile industry. an 
upsurge in interest in natural dyes has been manifested in many areas including 
reconstruction of ancient and traditional dyeing technologies and chemical 
characterisation of colourants in flora and fauna. 
Therefore the use of waste materials as a resource for dye extraction would be 
beneficial to the environment in many ways. In an overall view. such a natural dyeing 
application provides eco friend I) d) estuffs and dyed textile products leading to the 
3 
conservation of environmental and human health. Such an application also may 
minimise the environmental pollution arising in the synthesis and usage of synthetic 
dyes. Another advantage of using a natural dye obtained from a bio resource 
categorised as a 'waste', is that it reduces the accumulation of waste materials in the 
em ironment by reuse of them leading to a cleaner and healthier environment \.\lhile 
sa\ing the cost of handling and discharging the wastes (Internet, 4). 
1.3 Objectives 
The present research \Vas undertaken ""ith the \ ic\\ to study the role of natural dyes 
for textile industries. The emphasis was on newer d;eing sources. mordant stud) and 
newer dyeing techniques. 
Therefore the objectives of this study are. I 
(a) To investigate the natural dye producing plants in the world and those \\hich are 
indigenous to Sri Lanka. 
(b) To study different techniques of natural dyeing available in the world and to 
investigate the traditional dyeing techniques practiced in Sri Lanka and their 
current status. 
(c) To select plant materials \\hich go as ""aste but still contains a dye material m 
relatively large quantity. 
... 
(d) To select a method and develop new natural dyes which is ecologically friend!) 
and with less health hazards from a selected plant material. 
(e) ro investigate its suitability as a textile dye and to indicate pathways for large 
scale exploitation to support the local tcxtile. industry. 
(f) To investigate the role of ultrasonic and conventional dyeing processes. These 
high-energy releasing devices used for dyeing are advancements over the 
conventional heating method. 
(g) To emphasize on making ready- to- use newer natural dyes for commercial use. 
These plant extracts are otherwise sticky masses. not very easy to handle and 
store. 
The investigation of the traditional dyeing techniques and dye producing plants was 
reached within the following scope. 
4 
(a) A detailed literature survey was carried out to investigate the history of textile 
colouration with the intention of discovering the origin of natural dyeing practices 
in early history. 
(b) A survey through literature was performed to reveal the gradual progression path 
of natural dyeing techniques and the reasons for decline in their usage which has 
led to almost complete exclusion of them from commercial practice in the world 
with specific reference to Sri Lanka. 
(c) A list of indigenous dye producing plants of Sri Lanka was prepared b) narrO\\ ing 
do\\n the list of dye producing plants found in different literature. ''hich ""ere 
used throughout the \\Orld history to the le,els of Asia. South Asia (especially 
India) and finally in Sri Lanka. 
(d) The investigation of traditional dyeing techniques involvin{natural dyes in Sri 
Lanka and their usage and current status, was carried out through a literature 
survey together with interviewing selected persons knowledgeable in the field. 
1.4 Scope and overview of the research work into natural dyes 
The scope of this part of the study was to extract or develop new natural dye yielding 
materials from available plant sources and to investigate their suitability as textile 
dyes. based on the colour fastness properties. Although it is mainly based on 
... 
experimentation. the selection of suitable plant sources as raw materials for the 
extraction or development of dye ) ielding bio-materials were based mainly on the 
literature survey. The sources of raw materials \\ere selected by trial experiments 
conducted on the plant sources selected from th9 literature survey. 
High emphasis was given to the selection of waste materials as sources of extraction 
or development as potential textile dye yielding bio-materials. 
The aim of this work is to show the feasibility of producing high quality natural dyes 
creating new opportunities for both farmers and the fabric I garment industry in line 
with the current consumer trends towards ceo-friendly natural products. In this 
research ·environmental and economical" factors too need to be considered to make 
the study viable. 
The thesis titled "INVESTIGATION OF IIIGII VOLUME 810 MATERIALS FOR 
POTENTIAL COLOURANTS AND FINISil CIIEMICALS .. has been systematized 
5 
and compiled into five chapters each dealing with the specific aspects of dyes, 
extraction and dyeing of fabrics. 
Chapter One the INTRODUCTION AND OVERVI EW , defines introduction to 
natural dyes , general features of natural dyes , their sources from where these natural 
dye can be obtained , why it is important to revert hack to use of natural dyes and the 
increased interest in natural dyes world wide and justification , scope and objective of 
the research. 
Chapter Two reports a comprehensive LITERATURE REVIEW containing I 80 
references on historical background of dyes. sources of various natural dyes. 
constitutional aspects of colourants, classification. chemistry of natural colour and the 
I 
fastness properties of dyed fabric and some important natural dyes. This also presents 
a review of dyeing practices in Sri Lanka and information regarding the synthetic 
dyes. 
Chapter Three focuses on the experimental techniques used during the study or 
METHODOLOGY. This chapter includes selection of dyes, extraction of dyes using 
different methods, and the instruments used for the extraction and structure 
confirmation etc. This chapter also includes the specification of the fabric and method 
... 
of dyeing fabrics. evaluation of ceo-friendly properties of dyes extracted and the 
preparation of cloth for dyeing and e\aluation of best possible condition of dyeing and 
fastness properties of dyed fabrics. 
Chapter Four reports the RESlJL TS AND DISCUSSION of the research 
investigation. This section is divided into two sections. First section deals wi th the 
optimization of best dyeing conditions and interpretation of the results obtained from 
47 dye yielding bio materials available in Sri Lanka. Second section interprets the 
selection of best suitable I 0 bio materials from the above 4 7. This chapter includes the 
colour catalogue of swatches generated from the 47 bio materials in Sri Lanka and 
detailed analysis of selected best I 0 possible colour yielding bio-materials. 
Chapter Five constitutes the CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMME~DATIONS 
drav.·n from all the experimental and theoretical studies of this research. Finally 
suggestions are made for further research and development of natural dyes. fhe steps 
towards developing a local natural dye based industry are also outlined. 
6 
Chapter Two 
HISTORY AND BACKGROUND 
2.1 History of colouration 
1\dding colour to textile has been considered literally as adding colours to life. The 
application of colour to textiles has been kno-wn for thousands of years. Colour and 
pattern provide appeal for clothing and home textiles, and indicate usc and quality. 
Colour in textiles makes an important contribution to the quality of life, renecting 
personal preferences and sense of identit). In most cultures the colours of costumes 
worn for specific events have particular significance, indicating. for example. rank or 
role is considered to indicate both social status and standing (Smith (;l.nd Block. 1982). 
;I 
The ability of natural dyes to colour textiles has been known since ancient times. The 
earliest written record of the use of natural dyes was found in China dated 2600 BC. 
Chemical tests of red fabrics found in the tomb of King Tutankhamen in Egypt show 
the presence of alizarin, a pigment extracted from madder. Alexander the Great 
mentioned having found robes purple in colour dating to 541 BC in the royal treasury 
when he conquered Susa. the Persian capital. Kermes (from the Kermes insect) is 
identified in the bible book of Exodus, where references are made to scarlet coloured 
linen. By the 41h century AD, dyes such as woach madder, weld, brazilwood, and 
indigo and a dark reddish-purple were known. Brazil was named for the wood found 
there (Pardeshi and Paul, 2002). 
As early as 600 BC geometric designs -were wo.ven into wall hangings and rugs. Piece 
dyeing or application of dyes to the entire piece of cloth was practiced using natural 
dyes, two thousand years ago (Smith and Block, 1982). In Egypt, indigo has been 
found on cloth dating back to the fifth dynasty (2500 BC). Kermes was the first red 
dye used by the primitive man (Pardeshi and Paul, 2002). It.was used by the Hebrews 
and is mentioned in the Old Testament. llenna is used even before 2500 BC. Saffron 
is mentioned in the bible. Promcgranatc was used as early as 2000 BC in 
Mesopotamia and 1500 BC in Egypt. Orchil, a violet dye, was discovered in Florence 
in 1300 AD and for hundred years or so Florence supplied all the Orchil to the rest of 
Europe (Pradeshi and PauL 2002). The progression from dra\\ ings on cave walls to 
the vast array of coloured objects of the modern world has been a long, slO\\ process. 
fuelled by an innate desire for beauty and variety. and powered b) a growing 
7 
knowledge of why some materials have the capacity to lend colour to other materials 
(Internet, 5). 
Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs contain a thorough description of the extraction of 
natural dyes and their application in dyeing (Rys and Zollinger, 1972). The basis for 
most of the dyeing methods used until the nineteenth centaury was established by the 
ancient Egyptians, who developed the application of plant extracts often in association 
with mordanting. Further developments extending over many thousand years led to 
rather complicated dyeing processes and high quality dyeings. Among these the 
following deserve special mention: Indigo, which was obtained both from dyers woad, 
indigenous to Europe, and from Indigofcra tinctoria, a native plant of J\sia; ancient 
purple, which was extracted from a gland of the purple snail by the P?JCess developed 
by the Phoenicians; Alizarin, on which Turkey red is based, which was obtained from 
madder campeachi wood extract exported from Africa (Rys and Zollinger, 1972). 
Figure 2. 1 Peruvian textiles 
Peruvian Textile of the coast of Peru, some of the best examples of textiles from the 
Pre-incan period have survived, buried in desert tombs, especially on the Paracas 
Peninsula, 2,500-year-old textiles have been perfectly preserved and reveal 
extraordinary technical expertise. Most arc made of wool or cotton and are decorated 
with geometric patterns that sometimes represent animals and human figures (Fig. 
2.1 ). These materials were often coloured with mineral and vegetable dyes (Smith and 
Block, 1982). 
Some animal sources of dyes were shield scales or cochineal insects found on cacti in 
North and South America, and kermcs, a scale insect found on oak trees near the 
Mediterranean; both produced reds and pinks. Purple was made from a mollusk and 
8 
clothing made from it was so expensive only the royal family could afford it. It was 
extracted from a small gastropod mollusk found in all seas or from a crustacean called 
a Trumpet Shell or Purple Fish, found ncar tyrc on the Mediterranean coast. Their 
body secreted a deep purple fluid which was harvested by cracking the shell and 
digging out a vein located near the shellfish head with a small pointed utensil. The 
mucus-like contents of the veins were then mixed together and spread on silk or linen. 
Estimates are that it took 8,500 shellfish to produce one gram of the dye, hence the 
fact this dye was worth more than its weight in gold (Pardeshi and Paul, 2002). 
By the 151h century, dyes from insects, such as cochineal and Kermes, were becoming 
more common. By the l71h century, dyeing cloth "in the wood" was: introduced in 
England: Iogwood, fustic, etc Indigo began to be grown in Engl~, and Cudbear, a 
natural dye prepared from a variety of lichens, is patented. Another natural dye, 
Quercitron, from the inner bark of the North American oak, was patented in 1775. 
Figure 2.2 Textile dyeing in Morocco 
Textile Dyeing in Morocco is done in concrete or clay vats with techniques that have 
been used for centuries (Fig.2.2). The material may be treated again with another 
chemical so that its colour will not run or fade (Rys and Zollinger, 1972). 
Natural colours are used not only in dyeing textiles but also in cosmetics. The use of 
cosmetics is worldwide and dates from the remotest antiquity. Although it is generally 
believed that cosmetics as they arc now known originated in the Far East, the study of 
non-industrial cultures indicates the use of cosmetics in every part of the world. The 
war paint of Native Americans, the tattooing and scarification practiced by many 
people (Maori of New Zealand and numerous African cultures, for instance), and the 
9 
usc of woad (a plant dye used by ancient Britons to paint their bodies blue) arc all 
forms of cosmetic used for psychological intimidation of the enemy as well as 
adornment. Egyptian women also developed the art of decorating the eyes by applying 
dark green colour to the lower lid and by blackening the lashes and the upper lid with 
kohl, preparation made from antimony or soot (Smith and Block, 1982). 
The first uses of paint were entirely decorative. Thus, paint without a binder, 
consisting of iron oxide, was used for cave paintings about the 15 BC. In Asia. several 
pigments made from orcs, prepared mixtures. and organic compounds were knO\\n 
about 6000 BC. Indigo. a pigment extracted from the indigo plant. was kn0\\11 to the 
ancient Eg) ptians. Greeks, and Romans. and to the Inca. Gum arabic, egg ""hite. 
gelatin. and beeswax were the first vehicles used for these pigments (Pardeshi and 
/ Paul, 2002). 
Until the late 19th century natural dyes were used for colouring weaving yarns. 
Information about dyeing practices before the 16111 century is limited, but it is known 
that all dye matter came from mineral pigments, plant materials, or from animals and 
insects. Mineral pigments such as ochre (yellow or red), limestone or lime (white), 
manganese (black). cinnabar (red), blue aLurite, green malachite, lead oxide (red), and 
lapis lazuli (blue) were probably the first materials used for dyeing. Vegetable dyes 
came from leaves, roots. bark. and. occasionally, "fruit or flowers of plants. Woad. a 
plant of the cabbage famil). and indigo, a bush from the pea family, were both used 
for blue dye. Four vegetable yellows were especiall: important i.e. saffron. safflower. 
weld. and fustic. Madder and redwoods had been used since ancient times for oranges . 
. 
and browns and blacks came from Iogwood. betel nuts, walnut and butternut hulls. and 
a gum resin called cutch (Pardcshi and Paul, 2002). 
2.1.1 Water colour painting 
Water colour paints arc produced by binding dry powdered pigment mixed with gum 
arabic, a gum. obtained from acacia trees. that solidifies through evaporation but 
which is soluble in water. Solid water colour can then be dissolved in ).\later and 
applied to paper with a brush. Although water colour is a relatively tMj1<J)!rn type"oft 
paint. various water-based paints related to water colour have been ustd throUghof' 
recorded history. Ancient Eg) ptian painted pap) rus scrolls may be considered the ~~ 
water colours. and early oriental ink drawings are forms of monochrome \\at~~r. 
In medieval Europe. water-soluble pigments bound '' ith a thickener derived from eggs 
10 
were used in illuminated manuscripts (Bhattacharya , Doshi , and Sahasrabudhe , 
1998). 
2.1.2 Tempera painting 
Tempera Painting, method of painting in which the pigment is dissolved in water and 
"tempered ... or mixed into a paste, with egg, casein, gum, or glycerine solution. The 
process of painting in tempera is the oldest method of painting known; the wall 
paintings of ancient Egypt and Babylonia. and of the Mycenaean period in Greece, 
were probably executed in tempera with a medium of egg yolk (Bhattacharya . Doshi 
and Sahasrabudhe . 1998). The use of tempera subsequently became \\idespread 
throughout Europe and reached its height in !tal). 
2. t .3 Fresco painting I 
Fresco painting flourished in India. f-amous examples include frescoes in Ajanta 
caves, painted between 200 BC and 650 AD, and at Ellora, dating from the late 8th 
century. Painting on plaster walls was also an ancient art in China; examples dating 
from the 5th century onwards, and depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha. 
survive in the Cave of the Thousand Buddhas, at Tun-huang. Ajanta Caves, group of 
about 20 caves carved out of the sides of a steep ravine near the village of Ajanta, in 
central India. These historic wall paintings, dating from between 200 BC and 650 AD, 
traces the development of painting styles during that time. Most of the wall paintings 
are based on the jataka stories or on events in the life of the Buddha (Internet, 6). 
2.1.4 Oil painting 
I raditionally, oil painting proceeds in stages. f-irst the design is sketched on the 
ground in pencil or charcoaL or paint diluted with turpentine. Then broad areas of 
colour arc filled in with thin paint. They are successively refined and corrected in 
thicker paint to which oil and varnish arc added. The paint is usually applied with 
brushes made from stiff hog bristle, although sorter brushes of badger or sable hair 
may be used. The process may require only a few sessions or extend over months or 
even years (Internet, 7). 
2.2 Evolution of synthetic dyes 
Synthesis of dyes created the demise of natural dyes at this stage. Today however 
practicall) all dyes are synthetic. The) arc prepared from aromatic compounds. for 
ll 
\\hich then the only available source was coal tar. lienee the name coal tar dyes. W II 
Perkins made the first synthetic dye (mauve) in 1856. Mauve was an aniline dye. 
Perkin found a dye that would always produce a un iform shade and he pointed the 
way to other synthetic colors. thus revolutionizing the world of both dye making and 
fashion (Internet. 7). 
\s early as 1740. experiments had shown the possibility of synthesizing dyes. 
~aturally occurring indigo was treated \vith concentrated sulphuric acid by bath to 
produce a product. which was marketed as Saxe Blue (Carr. 1995). Picric acid .. , hich 
was obtained by Woulfe in 1771 by treating indigo \\ith nitric acid was subsequent!) 
occasionally used for dyeing silk yello\\ but did not attain any significance. For this 
reason really incorrectly William II. Perkin. not Woulfe. was given ;tcdit for having 
produced the first synthetic organic dye (Rys and Zollinger.. 1972). The initial 
attempts of this nature to produce synthetic dyes had no systematic basis for two 
reasons; firstly due to the general belief that only living organisms or God could 
prepare organic materials and secondly due to the insufficiency of chemical 
lillowlcdge to base anything other than random excursions into chemical synthesis 
(Carr, 1995). 
In 1856. English chemist. William H.Perkin, succeeded in obtaining by oxidation of a 
... 
mixture of aniline bases. not quinine, \\hich he had hoped for . but a violet cationic 
dye which he called Mauveinc ; initially the ) ield was poor. If Perkin is to be regarded 
a!:> the founder of the synthetic dye industry this is correct in the sense that. on the one 
hand. "'ith the primitive means then at his dispos<}l he was able to prepare a relatively 
pure and technically interesting product and. on the other hand. was able to develop its 
synthesis so that it could be used in large scale production (Rys and Zollinger. 1972). 
The brilliant violet hue of Mauveinc on silk immediately attracted much attention and 
stimulated other chemists to carry out similar experiments. Iri this way, in 1859. E. 
Yerguin in Lyon discovered fuchsine. whilst the discovery of diazo compounds by P. 
Griess in England laid the foundation for the development of currently largest class of 
:>)nthetic dyes. namely the a.t.o compounds. The first true azo dye. bismarck bro\\n. 
was deYeloped by Martius in 1863 (Rys and Zollinger, 1972). 
Lsing the discoveries of the William W. Perkins. BASF in Germany became one of 
the first companies to manufacture dyes from coal tar. Its specialty was the bright 
12 
bluish-purple known as indigo. The attraction of BASF's process lay in the fact that it 
took coal tar, a byproduct of gas disti llation, and transformed it into something that 
replaced a more expensive and unreliable organic substance. BJ\Sf's synthetic dyes 
were less expensive, brighter, and easier to usc than organic dyes. Profits from these 
dyes were used to finance BASF's diversification into inorganic chemicals later in the 
century as well as new production facilities across the river in Ludwigshafcn. This 
s1te still houses one of the largest chemical process industries in the world and textile 
dyes played a major role in these developments (Internet. 7). 
In England ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries) no"" taken over by AkLo Nobel was 
another major company who worked 'v\ith textile dyes. ICI first came out v. ith the 
. 
tibre reactive dye Procion. in 1956 V'.hich was a major success. l)e' huge success of 
ICl's first Procion dye brought about a real revolution in the dye industry. All the 
major dye manufacturers began research programs to develop other types of reactive 
dyes. Today the leader is DyStar a company that was formed with units from BJ\SF, 
Ciba etc. DyStar is the world's leading supplier of textile dyes. The company has by 
far the broadest product range on the market, covering almost all fibers and quality 
specifications (Internet, 8). 
l"he ban on Azo dyes which originated from Germany changed the situation for 
... 
synthetic dyes. The environmental issues and health aspects (carcinogenic. allergenic 
and poisonous issues) have slowed dO\\ n the demand for all types of synthetic dyes. 
roday the switch over to natural dyes or the desire to go back to nature is providing 
natural dyes another opportunity (Internet, 8). 
I he developments in the knowledge of synthetic organic chemistry (leading to the 
preparation of new dyes. the discovery of new reactive groups, etc.), of the reaction 
mechanisms (leading to the optimisation of manufacturing processes) and of the 
techniques of application has ultimately led to the commercial availability of 
thousands of synthetic dyestuffs world over today. 
The world wide synthetic dyestuff usage based on dye classes and the annual 
consumption of the cellulose dyes are shown in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 which give a 
general idea about the high quantities of chemicals released to the environment 
annually. 
13 
Table 2.1 World dyestuff usage (Holme, 2002) 
Type of Dye 
I 
MT '%of Total D~e Usage ~ 
Sulphur 90 19 
~ 
Direct 74 16 
~ + 
Vat 36 8 
... ~ 
Reactive 60 13 
.,. + 
\zoic 28 6 
• 
\cid 55 12 
.-
. 
I :2 Premetallised 15 3 
~ .,. 
--
1: I Premetall iscd 2 <1 
.-
Chrome 10 2 
• .. 
Disperse 85 18 
.- .. : 
Total 467 ' 100 
I 
Table 2.2 Estimated annual global consumption of cellulosic dyes (Holme, 2002) 
Type of dye 
Usage per Annum (MT) 
I 
-
I 198811 1992 2004 
Sulphur 90000 70000 70000 ~ Direct 74000 60000 68000 
Vat 36000 21000 22000 I 
- -· Indigo 12000 ... 12000 12000 
1\zoic 28000 18000 13000 
Reactive 60000 109000 178000 
Total 300000 290000 354000 
a Not include China. India and Eastern Europe 
2.3 Environmental aspects of synthetic dyes 
Dyes are part of peoples' everyday colourful lives. and consumer goods like textiles 
often come directly into contact with human skin. i\zo colourants are the most 
important class of synthetic dyes and pigments representing 60 % to 80 % of all 
organic colourants. 
'Jot all azo dyes are ham1ful to human health, howe\er some azo dyes under reductive 
conditions generate aromatic amines and these dyes arc carcinogenic. The European 
Union. the USA and other developed countries ha\'e already banned the use of these 
14 
I 
carcinogenic dyes. Tn the USA another type of dye called vat dyes is no longer 
manufactured because of environment concern (WIIO, 1987). 
Ihc effects of textile dyes and chemicals on human health are a serious health and 
emironmental policy issue, especially in the newly industrializing and developing 
world. Because the coloured materials can be visualized by the naked eye. they have 
rccei\ed more attention for treatment by the industry. 
In recent years. the accumulated literature has revealed many adverse health effects of 
contaminated surface. ground water and soil from dyes and associated auxiliaries. 
I able 2.3 depicts dyes/chemicals used in the textile industry along with a treatment 
dll'ticult) and pollution category that is in a range of I to 5. with 1 ~ejng the least 
harmful and 5 being the most harmful (Cooper, I 990). ;f 
Table 2.3 Pollution potential of some of the dyes and chemicals used in the 
textile industry 
General chemical type Difficulty of Pollution 
[ "-lkali, Mineral acids. Natural salts and oxidizing 
treatment category 
Relatively harmless 1 
inorganic pollutants agents 
-
Starch sizes. Vegetable oils. Fats and waxes.Bio- Readily bio- 2 
degradable surfactants, Organic acids and reducing segradable 
agents I Moderate to High 
D)eS and fluorescent brighteners. Fibres and 1 Dyes and polymers 3 
polymeric impourities. Polyacrylate sizes. Synthetic difficult to 
pol) mer finishes, silicon . biodegrade. 
Wool grease. PV A sizes. Starch ethers and esters. Di flicult to bio- 4 
Mineral oils. surfactants resistance to biodegration degrade Moderate 
and anionic & Non ionic softners BOD 
I Formaldehyde and N- methylol reactants, Unsuitable for 5 
Chlonnated solvents & earners. Cattomc retarders & conventional 
softners. biocides. sequestering agents. heavy metal biological treatment 
salts. Negligible BOD 
2.4 Textile colourants 
Textile colourants impart colour that is not easily altered. to textile materials b) 
becoming an integral part of it. Colouration of textiles improves the aesthetic qual it} 
and adds \alue to the product. Textile colouration is done by dyeing and I or printing 
15 
on substrates such as fibre, yarn, fabric and garments. [n dyeing. the dye is applied 
evenly by dipping fabric. fibre, yarn or garment in the dye solution. Printing is done 
on yarns, fabrics and garments by localised application of a dye paste on textiles. The 
textile colourants can be either natural or synthetic based on their origin. Synthetic 
colourants can be classified into two major types; namely, dyes and pigments while 
natural colourants mainly consist of dyes. 
Dyeing requires specific conditions so that the colour can penetrate the fibres: the 
majority of dyes are naturally suited to particular fibres and are rejected by others. The 
other very important component of the dyeing process is the mordant. This is mainly 
used in natural dye applications to improve fastness properties. It is ap intermediary 
agent. combining with certain natural dyes to bind the colouring y 'atter to the fibre. 
Different mordants yield different colours in the same dye bath: while vegetable dyes 
yield warm, subtle colours, their density and colour fastness are determined by 
varying concentrations and skilful manipulation of the mordants. The matter used for 
dyes and for mordants is the most crucial aspect in determining the colour as well as 
the effects on health and environment. Consciousness about the environment and the 
health has led to an evaluation of the matter used for dyeing and for mordants 
(Internet 8). 
... 
A textile dye should have the follovving properties: 
1. Must be absorbed by the substrate 
2. Give satisfactory colour yield 
3. Economical in its application 
4. Satisfactory fastness 
5. Be non toxic 
6. Be environmentally friendly 
2.5 Chemical basis of textile colouration 
Prior to the sixteenth century dyeing was a secret and a closely guarded technology. 
For example, the production in Turkey of the famous Adrianopolis or Turkey red by 
the application of the extraction of the madder root to cotton, mordanted with alum 
was a secret which was retained for 250 years. (Carr. 1995). All dyeing recipes of this 
age were the result of tedious experimentation carried out by the dyers \\ ithout any 
chemical knowledge. However. with the expansion of trade and tra\el that 
16 
accompanied the European renaissance and, more particularly, the development of the 
printing press, there was an explosion of knowledge and information. which exposed 
much of the mystery to the light of day. Many works were published in that period 
detailing dyeing and colouring procedures for difTerent textiles, largely for domestic 
usc. Of special importance, in that it was directed towards the industrial dyer, was The 
Plictho of Giovanventura Rosetti, published in 1548. ·which records. in addition to 
man) dyeing recipes and methods of plant and other extracts. procedures for the 
preparation of many important chemicals such as hydrochloric acid (Carr. 1995). With 
the expansion of knowledge and great increases in the volume of production that 
follov.ed this period came the demand for more reliable quality control, and as a 
consequence the demand for greater understanding. and the beginnings of scientific 
'/ 
investigation into the phenomena involved. · 
Dufay de Cisternay, who is regarded as the founder of the modern dyeing theory, 
published the first scientific account of dyeing processes based on physical and 
chemical ideas (Carr, 1995). The work of a succession of chemists following Dufay, 
made way to the current knowledge to account for the properties of textile colourants, 
mordants and other assistants involved in textile industry, and to the concepts of 
dyeing available today such as the conception that dyeing is a physical binding 
process on a molecular scale (Carr. 1995 ). With the advancements in science and 
technology. many concepts have been brought forward to explain the process of 
textile dyeing to the molecular level. Some of the major concepts are being explained 
below. 
(a) The colouring agents (dyes and pigments) should contain chromophorcs. v.hich 
are capable of selective absorption of frequencies from the visible spectrum of 
radiation and as a result. arc responsible of its own colour as well as of the 
substrate. 
(b) In any dyeing process regardless of the type of dye applied, there are three major 
stages involved namely, adsorption on the fibre surface (take up or exhaustion). 
diffusion into the fibre and fixation or anchoring to the dyeing sites of the fibre. 
Adsorption is affected by factors like electro potential forces. temperature and 
agitation ""here as diffusion depends on molecular size. porosit} and dye 
concentration at the interface. 
17 
(c) The fixation or anchoring involves one or more of the follovving principles 
(Shenai, 1994). 
Attachment of the dye in the fibre by certain physical forces like Van der Waals 
forces, hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interaction 
Mechanical trapping of the insoluble dye in the fibre 
Dissolution of the dye in the fibre 
Chemical reaction of the dye molecule -with the fibre to form covalent bonds 
2.6 Classification of synthetic textile colourants 
Studies in the analysis of natural colourants in textile are a fascinating subject, '' hich 
started as early as 1930. One of the first chemists who analysed natural -dyestuffs was I 
the French Chemist Pfister who used a microchemical analysis in which the result was 
achieved by colour reactions with different chemicals. The method was highly time 
consuming and not very reliable. Abraham's and Edelstein reported a method for 
extraction and identification of various natural dyes viz. alizarine. indigo, 6, 6 
dibrommoindigo, carminic acid (extracted from cochineal), yellow dye saffron, etc .. 
using infrared special analysis. They also reported that the method could be extended 
to analyse dyes in ancient dyed cotton. linens and silks . 
... 
There are se' eral ways for classification of dyes. lt should be noted that each class of 
d)C has aver) unique chemistry. structure and particular way of bonding. While some 
dyes can react chemically with the substrates forming strong bonds in the process. 
others can be held by physical forces. Some of t~e prominent ways of classification 
are given here under. 
(a) Organic/Inorganic 
(b) Natural/Synthetic 
(c) By area and method of application 
(d) Chemical classification- based on the nature of their respective chromophores 
(e) By nature of the electronic excitation (i.e. energy transfer colourants. absorption 
colorants and fluorescent colourants). 
(t) According to the dyeing methods 
o Anionic (for Protein fibre) 
o Direct (Cellulose) 
o Disperse (Pol) amide fibres) 
18 
I 
USRARV 
\m1V&i1SITY c; UOAATUWA, SRI LANKA 
MORATUWA 
However the most popular classification is the one that is advocated by the US 
International Trade Commission. This system classifies dyes into 12 types (Internet, 
9). 
Table 2.4 Classification of dyes according to the dyeing methods 
=l Group Application 1Direct Cotton. cellulosic and blended fibres 
Vat dyes Cotton. cellulosic and blended fibres 
~ulphur Cotton, cellulosic fibre 
: 
. 
f-
Organic pigments Cotton, cellulosic, blended fabr£. paper 
Reactive Cellulosic fibre and fabric 
Disperse dyes Synthetic fibres 
Acid dyes Wool, silk, paper, synthetic fibres, leather 
Azoic Printing inks and pigments 
Basic Silk, v.ool. cotton 
... 
I ex tile colourants can be classified into two major classes namely: dyes and pigments. 
Both dyes and pigments are also used to colour surfaces and substances other than 
textile materials: the difference between the two classes is in the methods and 
techniques used for colouring the substrates. Pigments are finely ground colour 
particles dispersed through a carrying base and take effect by using spread over the 
surface. Dyes are water-soluble colours or they can be converted into water-soluble 
compounds and under the prerequisite conditions for the class of dye, the colour is 
absorbed by the textile fibres (Green. 1972). In textile industry dyes are classified by 
both chemical type and method of utilintion. A general classification. of colouring 
materials is given in Figure 2.3. 
- 19 9 4~12 
(.'01 OliRAN IS 
T 
I I 
OYI."i Pl(i\-11 '-1 <.; 
I 
I 
RrAOY \1ADI lr\GR \It\ 1- : \ \T 
' 
_;; 
I I 
WAII.R 'iOLLULE - i\/.0 DYI S 1- A/. Oil' 
WATrR 
INSOLUBI f-
-
OIRI<. I DYI '> - V\TDYIS - Pill II \I <X Y \ '.J'.JI 
1- OX IDA IIO'.J 
COLOURS 
"' 
~ ACID IJ) L~ - St I PIIUR OYI '> ~ .\II~I.R ,\1 
\11'\[R \I 
'-- UllOlR'l 
. 
-
n \'>IC DYI .~ 
'-- DISI'I R~l DYI '> 
- Rl A<. IIVL: UYLS 
Figure 2.3 Classification of textile colourants (Shenai, 1994) 
20 
2.7 Natural dyes 
With the discovery of the first chemical dye in the mid nineteenth century, natural 
dyestuffs were slowly superseded. Until this time both the dyer and the printer had 
bl!en completely dependant on the natural dyestuffs (Green. 1972). 
fhe available literature puts the number of plants (Gulrajani et a!., 1992) species 
) ielding dyes to be around 300, but chemistry and availability of only few plants have 
bl!en investigated so far. A survey of indigenous Oora should be made in order to 
determine the availability of dye yielding materials like fruits. flowers, lea\ es and 
barks from Sri Lankan forests rather than the use of tree plants where the dye is 
extracted from roots. For this. different plant parts (Chatopadhyay el_ a!.. 1997) may 
t 
have to be scanned for their dye contents. Promotion of use of repewable species of 
dye bearing plants with their growth of natural dye production. especially growth of 
plant species. which simultaneously offer other marketable products, should be given 
priority. A choice of flora yielding dyes more than one important product, of which 
one is a dye would be of agronomical benefits (Chavan, 1995; Jeyakodi, 1996). 
The chemical screening of plant material of the Sri Lankan forests particularly those 
\\hich are reported to be vegetable wastes of forests is thus a necessity. Particularly 
the herbs and shrubs may be studied in detail wi_th regard to their agronomical 
practices. chemical modification and purification of dyes. Another aspect of sourcing 
is to select plants. which offer more than one product. for example. a resin is extracted 
from lac and the residue then yields the dye. Many essential oil producing flowers 
(Prayag. 1994) give perfumes and subsequently dye can be extracted from the remains 
such as tegetus, such activities should be encouraged. However natural origin may not 
necessarily be always guaranteed freedom from toxicity. The migratory or residual 
component from processing aids, auxiliaries and mordant may at times lead to 
handling hazards. The natural dyes need to be standardized. 
However the standardization of natural dyes (Vineet and Bharti. 1998) is a difficult 
proposition as the percentage of the colouring compounds in a given plant changes 
from place to place, soil to soil, variety to variety and even plant to plant. A method to 
standardize (lshrat . 1993) natural dye in available powder or paste from which a 
known measure of its standard depth on a given fabric is obtained, needs to be 
developed. However for this it is important to identify: 
21 
(a) Safe natural dyes 
(b) Use of safe mordants 
(c) Eventually aim for ecofriendly textiles. 
(d) Marketable natural dyes-powder. concentrate or paste. 
Ecofriendly textile fibres which when transformed to garments should at no stage of 
its processing, printing. colouring and production cause any environmental pollution. 
in the true sense (Giovev and Pierscc. 1993 ). It is the pollution control. which has 
diverted the attention of users towards nature. Both the government and people are 
getting aware of this problem. The use of natural dyes is not new: if s just that there is 
are\ ival of trends in advanced scienti ftc technology. 
' 
Although about fifteen natural dyes arc being used by the d~artment of textiles 
industries, Sri Lanka, they are being marketed in crude form. Purification, colour 
fastness, colour variety with mordants and stability have not been still explored. There 
is always a continuous need to explore newer natural dyes for getting full gamut of 
colours. 
With the revival of interest in natural dyes and ecofriendly textiles, a great deal of 
interest and potential lies in this area. (Anon, 1998; I lowes. 1953). Alternate methods 
of isolation. collection, and standardiLation need to ,Pe developed. Prima facie. natural 
dyes are more expensive than synthetic dyes. However this handicap can be overcome 
by using wastelands be used for the cultivation of plants. which are dye sources. This 
would enable bulk production of the dye subsequent!). by lowering the production 
cost. A great deal of planned chemical research is called for understanding the nature 
of active chromophoric substance, which in turn should give clues for the 
chromophoric activities. New mordants could be chclated to show fastness to light and 
washing properties. It is with this intention that the explorations of newer plant species 
for natural dyes were tried. 
There are numerous plants, the extracts from which are capable of colouring wool, 
silk, cotton and linen. For various reasons such as dyeing behaviour, fastness 
properties or their biological availability, only a few have found application as dyeing 
agents (Pardeshi and Paul, 2002). Tannin is closely related to dyestuffs and generally 
occurs in plants as an excreta in the bark and other parts. which may be either 
employed direct or used for extracting tannin in a concentrated form (Munidasa. 
22 
1988). There is no doubt that the use of natural dyes on a commercial scale is 
gradually increasing. There is no difficulty in accepting the challenge of retailer 
selling merchandise dyed or printed with natural dyes (Horrocks, 1996). 
!'here are very few natural dyestuffs, which have a natural affinity to textile fibres and 
become permanent without a preliminary treatment. Dyes with this property are being 
described as '"substantive". In the majority of cases the dyestuff will colour the cloth 
onl] \\·hen assisted by a chemical compound, a mordant. The mordants used in dyeing 
are metallic salts. although some arc acidic (I Iorrocks, 1996). 
2.8 Classification of natural dyes 
\Jatural dyes can be broadly classified in various ways. out of whicr fhe earliest one 
being according to the alphabetical order. Later with the develotfments in chemical 
knowledge classifications were based on chemical structure. Besides these methods or 
classification, natural dyes have been listed on the basis of their botanical names, 
common names, origin, application and colour. 
2.8.1 Classification based on origin 
\Jatural colouring matters are broadly classified into four categories based on their 
ongm: 
... 
(a) Vegetable origin 
The colouring matter is derived from root, leaf. bark. trunk or fruit of plants 
(b) Animal origin . 
Lac. cochineal and kermes have been th~ principal dye yielding insects. 
Cochineal 
A good example is cochineal, which is a brilliant red dye produced from insects living 
on cactus plants. Cochineal, red dye derived from the dried bodies of female scale 
insects, dactylopius coccus. The properties of the cochineal bug were discovered by 
pre-Columbian Indians who would dry the females in the sun, and then ground the 
dried bodies to produce a rich, rich red powder. When mixed with water, the powder 
produced a deep, vibrant red coloring. Cochineal is still harvested today on the Canary 
Islands. 
23 
Lac 
Lac, resinous substance secreted by the lac insect on the twigs and young branches of 
certain trees. The lac insect, Kerria lacca, is of the Coccoidea super family (scale 
insect). Females insert their long proboscises into the bark of the twigs or branches, 
drawing their foodstuff from the sap. 1 hey exude a secretion that accrues and 
coalesces, forming hard, resinous layers that completely cover their bodies. The 
ovaries contain a crimson fluid called lac dye, resembling cochineal. 
Crude lac, known as stick-lac. consists of the resin, the encrusted insects. lac dye. and 
twigs. When crushed and \\ashed free of the dye. t~igs. and insects. it becomes 
granular and is known as seed-lac or grained lac. After meltif!g: and further 
t 
purification, the resulting lac resin is solidi ficd into thin layers or fl~es that constitute 
commercial shellac. Shellac varies in colour from yellow to deep orange. 
(c) Mineral origin 
Various inorganic metal salts and metal oxides. Ocher is a dye obtained from an 
impure earthy ore of iron or ferruginous clay, usually red (hematite) or yellow 
(limonite). In addition to being the principal ore of iron, hematite is a constituent of a 
number of abrasives and pigments. 
(d) Lichen origin 
... 
Used to extract dyes such as litmus, orchil, etc (McGrath, 1977; Macmillan, 1943). 
Apart from these four origins. which give natural dyes essentially from natural 
sources. there are tv:o other origins of natural dyes, ~hich are not necessarily natural 
origins of them (Vankar. 2002). They are, 
(I) Chemical synthesis 
This involves synthesis of dyes with molecular structures identical to those of 
natural dyes (Vankar, 2002). 
(2) Tissue or cell culture by DNA Transfer Biotechnology 
Certain fungi such as Drechslera and Trichoderma produce anthraquinone 
derivatives as secondary metabolites. As anthraquinones are a very important 
class of dyes, exploiting the fungi would be advantageous over their chemical 
't 
synthesis. If genetic modifications can be achieved, it is possible to develop fungi 
that produce substituted anthraquinones. It is possible that these compounds may 
be engineered by genetic modification. The two most eco-friendly approaches to 
natural dye manufacturing are: 
24 
• By enriching the natural sources by efficient cultivation techniques and 
extraction techniques. 
• Bio-technological methods to obtain safer natural structural entities m an 
inherent natural way (Vankar, 2002). 
2.8.2 Classification based on chemical nature 
•"atural colouring substances can be classified into seven categories according to their 
chemical nature (Pardeshi and PauL 2002: Vankar. 2002). 
(a) Indigoids: This is perhaps the most important group of natural dyes. The dye is 
extracted from woad and lndigofera tinctorial plants. 
(b) Anthraquinones: Some of the most important red dyes are based on J1nthraquinone 
structure. They are obtained both from plants as well as from i ~asects or animals. 
"' 
These dyes are characterized by light fastness ratings. 
(c) Alpha-hydroxy-Naphthoquinones: The most prominent member of this class of 
dyes is henna obtained from the leaves of Lawsonia inermis. Another similar 
type of dye is extracted from the shell of unripe walnuts. 
(d) Flavones: Most of the yellow colours are derivatives of hydroxyl or methoxy 
substituted flavones or isoflavones. 
(e) Dihydropyrans: These are the principal colouring bodies of Iogwood and are the 
historically most important natural dyes for dark Shades on silk, wool and cotton. 
Substituted dihydropyrans like hematin and its leuco form. hematoxylin are 
closely related in chemical structure to the flavones 
(f) Anthocyanidins: The naturally occurring members of this class include carajurin . 
. 
obtained from the leaves of Bignonia chica and Awobanin. It dyes silk in blue 
shade. 
(g) Carotenoids: The class name carotene is derived from the orange pigment found in 
carrots. The prominent natural dyes based on carotenoid structure are annatto and 
saffron. 
2.8.3 Classification based on application 
\Jatural dyes can also be classified according to the basis of its application. Here the 
natural dyes are classified into two groups. namely. substantive and adjective dyes. 
Substantive dyes have natural affinity to textile fibres and therefore do not need an) 
treatments to fix the dye to the fibre (e.g. indigo. orchil. turmeric, etc.). The adjective 
dyes ha\e no natural affinit) to the textile material and hence are capable of dyeing 
25 
material only after mordanting the material with metallic salts or with the addition of 
such a salt to the dye bath. The substantive dyes can be further classified as direct 
(turmeric, saffiower on cotton; safnowcr on wool and silk), acid (saffron on wool and 
silk) and basic (berberine on silk and wool) (Pardeshi and Paul. 2002). 
2.8.4 Classification based on colour 
1\:atural dyes can also be classified based on the colours they produce. Various natural 
dyes could present all the colours of the visible spectrum (Yankar, 2002). On this 
basis they are broadly categorised into two. namely, monogenetic and polygenetic 
(Pardeshi and Paul. 2002). The monogenetic type of dyes produce only one colour 
irrespective of the mordant applied: where as, the polygenetic dyes Broduce different 
colours depending on the mordant employed e.g. alizarin, log;yood. cochineal and 
fustic (Humel, 1888). In the colour index dyes arc classified according to the chemical 
constitution as well as the major application classes of sixteen. Within an application 
class dyes are arranged according to hue. Natural dyes form a separate section in the 
Colour Index (CI). In this section the dyes arc arranged hue wise. The dyes of each 
hue are given in Table 2.3. Some dyes produce more than one hue and treating with 
different mordants can alter the hue of a particular dye. If the dye is of plant origin, 
the colour may vary depending on the soil properties. part of the plant, season of 
harvesting. cultivation practices. etc. 
.... 
Table 2.5 Number of natural dyes for different hues (Pardeshi and Paul. 2002) 
C.I.Natural No of Dyes Percentage 
Yellow 28 
. 30.4 
Orange 6 6.5 
Red 32 34.8 
Blue 3 ,.., ,.., .),.) 
Green 5 5.5 
Brown 6 6.5 
----- ---·-·--
2.8.5 Sources of natural dyes on the basis of colour • 
!'Jormally natural dyes (Mell. 1977) are extracted from the roots. stems. leaves. 
flowers. fruits of various plants. dried bodies of certain insects and minerals. Some 
plants may have more than one colour depending upon which part of the plant one 
26 
uses. The hue shade of the colour a plant produces will vary according to time of the 
year it is picked, how it was grown, soi l content etc. Minerals in the water used in a 
dye bath can also alter the colour. Some natural dyes contain natural mordants. 
(a) Red colour 
unlike the wide abundance of yellow colour in nature, most red dyes are hidden in 
roots or bark of plants camouflaged in the bodies of dull grey insects. Although. 
sources are limited. they occur in large groups in a single plant. Cocheneal is an 
important red colour and it is the brightest of all the available natural red d:>es. 
~1anjistha (Goel. 1997). Sappan and Kusumbar are among the vegetable sources that 
gi,·e red colour. Lac (Suri et a/.. 2000) and kermiz are among the animal sources. 
~ : 
which also give red colour. I 
Table 2.6 Global sources of natural red dyes (Bhawna. 2001) 
Name Botanical name Parts used Mordants 
Safflower Carthamus tinctorious Flower N/A 
I Alkanate Morinda citr(folia Root, Bark Alum 
Blood root Sanguinaria canadensis Root Alum 
Anchusa Anchusa tinctoria Root Alum 
Ladys bed straw Galium verum Root N/A 
Cochineal Insect Dried body Alumffin 
i I -
(b) Blue colour . 
Commonly there are three natural blue colo~r dyes that is natural indigo (Eiters, 
1996). suphonated natural indigo and the flowers of the Japanese (Tsuykusa) used 
mainly for making some special kind of papers. 
Table 2.7 Global sources of natural blue dyes (Bhawna, 200 I) 
Name Botanical Name Parts Used Mordants 
Water Lily Nymphaea alba Rhysomes Iron 
Woad lwtis tictoria Leaves N/A 
Sunt Berry Acacia ni/otica Seed Pods N/A 
Pi ret Ligustrum Mature berries after Alum and Iron 
J frost 
27 
(c) Black colour 
Black colour can be obtained from harda, custard apple etc., 
Table 2.8 Global sources of natural black dyes (Bhawna, 2001) 
Name Botanical Name Parts Used Mordants 
1 Babla Acacia Arabia Bark Alum 
. Alder Alnus gultinosa Bark Iron 
Rofblamala Laranthus pentape!Uius Leaves Iron 
Custard Apple Amana reticulate Fruit N/A I ! 
I 
Hard a I Terminalia chehul~ _ fruit Iron 
' (d) Yellow colour I 
Yellow is the loveliest and perhaps the most abundant of all hues in nature. The 
numbers of plants, which yield yellow dyes, arc much higher than those yielding other 
colours (Shivakumar et a/., 200 I) marigold (Gurumalle, Raja and Prabu, 1998) 
Turmeric (Saxena, Yardarajan and Nachane, 200 I) , Teak (Patel et a!., 1999), 
pomegranate (Ansari, Thakur and Joshi, 1999) and heart wood part of jak fruit (Nanda 
and Patra, 1999) give yellow colour. 
Table 2.9 Global sources of natural yel low dyes (Yandana, 2000) 
Name Botanical Name Parts Used Mordants 
Turmeric Curcuma Longa Ground tubers N/A 
Golden rod Solidago grandis Flower Alum 
Agrimony Agrimonia eupatoria Le~wes. Stem Chrome 
Horsetail Equisetum genus Leaves,stalk Tin 
Fustic Chlorophora tinctoria Wood Alum 
llarda Teminalia chehula Fruit Alum 
Pomegranate rind Punica granatum Fruit Alum 
Black Berry Rubus fructicosa Old stem and leaves N/A 
I Weld Reseda luteola Bark Alum 
-
Chir Pinus roxhurghii Whole plant N/A 
Ling Leather Calluna ru/garis Tops of flowering plant Alum,Iron 
Hazel COI}'lus ave/lana Mature Catkins Alum 
l_Corn Marigold Chrysanthemum f-lowering tops 
1 
Alum 
28 
(c) Green colour 
Green colour is hard to get directly from natural source; nonnally it is obtained by 
mixing indigo and yellow however cannas and lily give nice florescent green. 
Table 2.10 Global sources of natural green dyes (Bhawna, 2001 ). 
-
I Name Botanical Name Parts Used Mordants 
:Lilly Convallaria maja/is Leaves and Stalk Ferrous sulphate 
Stinging Urtica diocia Leaves Alum 
1 Wild St.John's wort Hypericum Whole plant Alum or no 
L 1 perforatum except root mordant (t) Bro~n colour 
Similarly brown colour can be obtained from cutch, sumach and ~~oalyptus. 
Table 2.11 Global sources of natural brown dyes (Bhawna, 200 I) 
Name Botanical Name Parts Used Mordants 
Sumach Rhus species Berries Alum 
1 Cutch Catechu Wood Iron 
Auch Mordina tinctoria Leaves N/A 
Marigold Tegutus !-Jpecies Flowers Chrome 
Black berries Rubus .fruct icosus Berries Iron 
-
1 Lodh Symp/ocos reacemosa Bark N/A 
(g) Orange/Peach colour 
I 
-
Orange/ Peach colour can be obtained from Dahlia and annatto (Gulrajani el a/., 1992) 
using different mordants. 
Table 2.12 Global sources of natural orange/peach dyes (Bhawna, 200 I). 
Name Botanical Name Parts Used 
Bahia Acacia Arabia Bark 
Alder Alnus gultinosa Bark 
I Rofblamala Laranthus pentapetulus Leaves 
Custard Apple Amona reticulata Fruit 
I I Termina_lia chehula ~ i Harda Fruit 
i 
29 
2.9 Extraction methods of na tura l dyes 
\ cgctable dyestuffs owe their origin to the presence of small quantities of certain 
chemical substances secreted in the plant tissues, which arc extracted by processes of 
fermentation, boiling or chemical treatment (Macmillan, 1943). Almost all plant 
extracts used as dyes or dye intermediates were extracted by means of boiling and the 
onl~ reported exceptions been the indigo dye extracted from woad and indigo plants 
r:- fermentation process (Green. 1972). Mainly natural dyes are extracted in two 
different methods. boiling and fermentation. Out of these plant colours are almost 
alwa)s extracted by boiling v.here the two notable exceptions being woad and indigo. 
which are processed by fermentation. Even in boiling, plant parts such a~ fibrous roots 
and barks should be steeped in water first; the depth of shade is/dependent on the 
kngth of time they are left steeping (Green, 1972). 
Before the introduction of indigo into Western Europe in the sixteenth century, woad 
(lsatis tinctoria) yielded the only blue colour used and was cultivated specifically for 
the pigment it contained. Indigo dye is obtained from a shrub (Jndigofera tinctoria), a 
native of India, although it grows widely elsewhere. except in Europe. The colouring 
matter is found only in the leaves, which are cut and fermented in tepid water (Green, 
1972). 
... 
lo produce the dye indigo from indigc?fera plants. fermentation is carried out in large 
masonry tanks. The green crop is placed in these tanks and weighted down with 
planks. Water is laid on so as to cover the planks. which is subjected to a process of 
fermentation and churning. Fermentation is all(}wed to go on for 12-16 hours and 
stopped when the leaves become a pale colour. The liquid is run off by means of a tap 
at the bottom of the tank, into a second tank or cistern, and is kept constantly agitated 
by wading coolies beating with paddles. or by a mechanical contrivance. for 2-3 
hours, after which the indigo settles in the bottom in the form of bluish mud. This after 
draining off the water, is put into bags, which are hung to dry. and afterwards cut into 
cubes about 3 inches square. stamped. and further dried (Macmillan, 1943). 
2.10 Natural dyeing 
~ 
2.10.1 Advantages of natura l dyes 
I oda} dyeing is a complex, specialized science. The market is becoming interested in 
changing to natural products. Customers more aware of environmental issues are now 
30 
demanding natural products, naturally sourced. If a fashion company introduces a new 
hne of clothes produced with a natural fibre, the naturally sourced dye is needed to 
complete the green label. Natural dyes can offer not only a rich and varied source of 
dyestuff, but also the possibility of an income through sustainable harvest of the dye 
plants. Also, they have a far superior aesthetic quality. which is much more pleasing 
to the eye. Nature provides a wealth of plants which will yield their colours for the 
purpose of dyeing. New ways of dyeing the wool and silk with the natural dyes are 
fair!} cheap compared to the artificial, chemical dyes. The rav. materials for 
production of natural dyes arc abundantly available (Internet. 10). 
\\'htle working with the natural d}es. if 1.0 kg of fiber. directly spent expe~ses include 
the preparation of the dyeing products, expenses on drying and thr)?hing them. the 
expenses on washing and dyeing. and the expenses on the very process of dyeing. The 
total sum of the expenses compared to the total sum of the expenses on working with 
the artificial and chemical dyes, i.e. buying the artificiaL chemical, color changing 
chemical elements and the process of dyeing with those substances, is much less. 
2.1 1 Mordants and mordanting 
Natural dyes are either substantive, needing no mordant. or adjective requiring one. 
rhe majority of natural dyes need a chemical in the...forrn of metal salt to create 
atlinit} between the fibre and the pigment. These chemicals are known as mordants. 
Dyeing with these mordants is called as 'mordanting· (Shenai. 1994). Mordants are 
considered as an intergral part of the natural dyeing process by the dyers of natural 
dyes. This is an anomaly. which continues to be p'ertetuated by different authors and 
practitioners of natural dyeing (Chattopadhyay el a/., 1997). 
A mordant is a substance used to set dyes on fabrics by forming an insoluble 
compound with the dye. It may be used for dyeing fabrics, or for intensifying stains in 
cell or tissue preparations. A mordant is either inherently colloidal or produces 
colloids and can be either acidic or alkaline. The mordant has affinity for both fihre 
and the dye. Thus those dyes. which do not have any affinity for a fibre, can be 
applied by using mordants. Thus improves the staining ability of any dye along with 
increase in fastness properties. Mordants form an insoluble compound within the 
fibre. The mordant dye includes those differing ""idely from colou (Anon. 1998). 
31 
\ close look at the chemical structures of the natural dyes isolated would show that 
these dyes are capable of forming complexes with metals or not. Many natural dyes 
have good affinity for the fibre; however their uptake as well as hue can be further 
modified by pre-treatment or post treatment with the metal salts called mordants. 
\1ordants are classified in three classes: 
(a) Tannins and Tannic acid 
(b) Metal salts or metallic mordants 
(c) Oils or oil mordants 
2.11.1 Tannins and tannic acid 
rhe term tannin was introduced by Seguin in 1796 to describe the su?stances present 
in number of vegetable extracts which are responsible for convertj'lg purifying animal 
skins in to the stable product by tanning process. Dyeing with natural dyes; tannins 
play a very important role. Among the naturally occurring mordants are the tannins. lt 
improves the affinity of fibres towards different dyes. With different natural dyes it 
gives different shades like yellow, brown, grey and black. 
Pre-treatment with tannic acid followed by metal salt treatment to cotton introduces 
additional hydroxyl and carboxyl groups in fibre. These groups by themselves can 
only increase the dye uptake. A subsequent treatment of the tannin treated cotton with 
... 
metal salts such as alum introduces the aluminium ions in the fibre. The tannin treated 
cotton at the hydroxyl or carbOX) I groups absorb these ions, either by forming metal 
complex or metal salts. These metal ions then prO\ ide sites for the mordant d) es. 
Hence introducing metal ions in the fibre either directly or as tannin metal complexes 
can increase the affinity of cotton towards mordant dyes. It is apparent that the tannins 
by themselves do not act as mordants but tannin-metal salt combination can only act 
as a mordant for the natural dyes (Anon, 1998). 
The stabi lity of the tannin-fibre bond depends on the pH, ionic strength and metal 
chelators. The vegetable tannin may be divided structurally into two distinct classes 
depending on the type of phenolic group involved and the way they arc joined 
together. Catechin (a powerful, water soluable polyphenol and ant_ioxidant that is 
easil: oxidized) was first isolated 140 years ago by Runge from the tannins of Acacia 
catechtu. Acacia catechu is a deciduous tree of 25m height and is native to Sri Lanka. 
Burma and lndia.The colouring component obtained from this tree is popular!) known 
32 
~) ·Cutch', which produces copper red colours on cotton. wool and silk having very 
~ood washing and light fastness (Vandana, 2002). 
2.11.2 Application of tannins 
Cotton has very low affinity for most of the natural dyes. The tannins play an 
important role in cotton dyeing and are largely used for preparing cotton. so as to 
enable it to retain colouring matter permanently. Tannic acid is the best "tannin" for 
the mordanting of cotton since it is the purest of all. and does not contain the natural 
impurities. which are partly ineffective. partly injurious to mordanting and dyeing. 
fannic acid is extensi\'ely used in the dyeing of the light and brilliant shades. For dark 
shades extracts of gallnut. sumach and m) robalan are largely employed. For the light 
: 
shades 2-5 % (owf) tannic acid is used, while for dark shades 5-1~% tannic acid is 
required (Vandana, 2002). 
2.11.3 Metal mordants 
It is the general opinion that the metallic salts, because of their corrosive nature, make 
the textile rough, opened their pores. and made them more receptive to the colouring 
matters. A mordant is now regarded as a chemical which can allow certain dyes with 
no affinity for the fibre to be fixed, where the dyes are capable of being directly used 
and the mordants help to produce faster shades by forming an insoluble compound of 
... 
mordant and dye stuff within the fibre (Internet, 11 ). 
Besides metallic salts. tannins and oils arc also used as mordants. Generally cotton is 
mordanted with these mordants. These mordants impart affinity for basic dyes. Cotton 
on further treatment with tannic acid can absorb all the types of metallic mordants. 
l;urthcr the metallic mordants form complex with the carboxylic groups of tannic acid. 
The cloth thus treated can be dyed with the mordant dyes easily and successfully 
(Gulrajani eta/., 1992). 
The common mordants are Alum (Potassium aluminium sulphate), Copper (Copper 
sulphate), Chrome (Potassium dichromate), Tin (Stannous chloride). Iron (Ferrous 
sulphate) and Tannic Acid. These arc used in various combinations with assistants for 
mordanting wool. cotton. linen and silk. Potasium aluminium sulphate , common!) 
called alum. Alum is a white powder that is safe to have and easy to use. Alum 
produces bright shades and gi' es relative!) good light-fastness. If used in excess. alum 
will make wool feel sticky. so it is recommended that one measures accurately. Tf you 
33 
use an aluminum pan it will contribute to the brightness of the colour, but will not 
guarantee the colour fastness. 
• Iron - Ferrous sulphate is a greenish powder that dissolves to make a rusty-
coloured liquid. You can also simmer dyes in a cast-iron pot or use rusty nails or 
iron shavings. Iron produces dark. dull colours that are fast. Iron used in excess on 
wool will weaken the fibers and causes yarns and fabrics to wear out premature!]. 
• Copper - Use of copper sulfate gives a beautiful blue colour when dissolved in 
water. Copper darkens colors and gi,es a greenish cast. It provides good colour-
fastness and is not as hard on fibers as iron. A solid copper pot will make an 
excellent copper mordant. 
t 
• Tin- Stannous chloride is a white powder that will dissolve inlo a clear solution. It 
brightens colours, sometimes producing a remarkable "unnatural" effect. Tin 
provides good fastness, but can make wool feel brittle and rough. It is best to usc 
alum as the primary mordant and just a pinch of tin for brightness. 
• Chrome - Bright orange crystals known as potassium dichromate make a bright 
orange solution. If exposed to light, this solution becomes unstable. so it should be 
kept with a lid on the container and not exposed to light. Chrome in any form is 
toxic. so treat this mordant with respect and caution. Chrome gives good bright 
colors that are very fast and it gives ~ools a soft texture (Internet, 12). 
2.11.4 Oil mordants 
Oil mordants are used mainly in the dyeing of.turkcy red colour from maddar (Rubia 
cordifolia). The main function of the oil mordant is to form a complex with alum used 
as the main mordant. Since alum is soluble in water and does not have affinity for 
cotton it is easily washed out from the treated fabric. The naturally occuring oils 
contain fatty acids such as palmitic. stearic, oleic. ricinlic etc, and their glycerides. 
fhe sulfonated oils, which possess better metal binding capacity than the natural oils 
due to the presence of sulfonatic acid group binds metal forming a complex with the 
mordant dye to give superior fastness and hue. 
• 
2.11.5 Mordanting 
In the application of the dyes. different techniques of mordanting and post-treatment 
were used to improve colour fastness properties. As a result. a broad set of variations 
34 
in the dyeing recipes is given in the literature, and an optimization of the dyeing 
conditions with regard to the type of natural dye is quite common. The numerous 
variations of plant sources and dyeing processes proposed in the literature make an 
introduction of natural dyeing into full-scale technical dyeing processes rather 
dillicuh. 
The chemistry of dyes to fibres is complex~ it involves direct bonding, H-bonds. 
hydrophobic interactions. Mordants to this effect increase binding of dye to fabric by 
forming a chemical bridge. The mordant has aninity to both fibre and the dye. Thus 
~hose dyes, v.hich do not have affinit) for a fibre. can be applied by using mordants. 
rhus impoves the staining ability of any dye along with increa:se in fastness 
properties. Mordant forms an insoluble compound of the dye withi.!fthe fibre. 
2.12 Fastness properties of natural dyes 
It is a fundamental requirement that coloured textile should withstand the conditions 
encountered during processing, following colouration and during their subsequent 
useful life (Venkataraman, 1978; Stevenns, 1979; Taylor, 1986; Gulrajani eta!., 200 I; 
Seerangarajan , 2001 ). When a coloured textile is subjected to particular conditions, 
e.g. light or washing, one or more of several things may happen. As far as the colour 
of the material is concerned there may be alteration in all three. A red material rna) 
... 
become paler, yellowish and duller. Further under certain conditions. adjacent \\ hite 
material may become coloured and coloured material may acquire ne\\ colour due to 
the transfer of dye from the original dyed material. 
The colour fastness of coloured textile is therefore. defined as its resistance to these 
changes when subjected to a particular set of conditions. It follows that colour fastness 
must be specified in terms of the changes expressed in terms of their magnuitude. 
Fastness properties are divided into two classes: (Vandana, 2002). 
(a) Fastness properties of natural dyes. 
(b) Fastness properties of dyed material. 
In early times clothing was infrequently washed and the fading of colours on clothing 
was accepted as inevitable. A study of the older literature shows that early in the 
history. man was aware of the fleeting nature of natural dyes available to him and was 
perpetually making efforts to improve the fastness properties of these dyes. Plin) . 
writing in the first centaur} AD. records in great detail a method by which the 
35 
l.g)ptians smeared white cloth with a series of 'colourless drugs' (mordants) and 
plunged the whole into boiling dye bath. After the dyeing was completed, the cloth 
was multi coloured, the variations in hue being dependant on drugs that had been 
placed. There is evidence that Egyptians had learned this technique of mordanting 
from India. Thus as far as first century, man was using mordants to improve the 
fastness of his dyeing and for shade developments (Vandana, 2002). 
Although mordanting and certain after treatments improved fastness, the inherent 
nstability of the chromophores of the natural colouring matters resulted in lo\:v 
fastness to washing and light. Old textiles dyed with natural dyes have acquired an 
o\·erall brownish hue. Greens produced by 0\ er dyeing indigo with a natural yciiOv\ 
dye inevitably fade to a bluer hue because of the higher light f~yness of the indigo 
component. These effects are readily observed in old tapestries. 
In recent as well as in classical studies it has been reported that most natural dyes have 
poor light stability, and hence the colours in museum textiles are often different from 
their original colours. It has also been observed that some natural dyes undergo 
marked changes in hue on washing, shown to be attributed due to even small amounts 
of alkali in washing mixture, highlighting the necessity of knowing the pH of alkaline 
solutions used for cleaning of textiles with natural dyes . 
... 
I'he poor wash fastness of many natural dyes is mainly attributed to following factors: 
(a} Weak dye-fibre bonds between the natural dye and the fibre. 
(b) Change in hue due to breaking of the natural dye-metal complex during washing. 
(c) Ionisation of the natural dyes during alkaline washing. Since most of the natural 
dyes have hydroxyl groups which get ionized under alkaline conditions, many 
fabrics dyed with natural dyes under acidic conditions change the colour on 
washing with alkaline detergents or soap. 
Wash fastness of some of the natural dyes can be improved with the post treatment 
with alum or dye fixing agent resulting in the formation of a dye-fibre complex or a 
cross link between dye and fibre, respectively. 
The factors affecting light fastness of dyed materials such as the nature of dye, fibre 
and state of dye inside the fibre. also, in general, have a similar effect on the wash 
fastness properties but the physicall; determined wash fastness properties arc 
relatively simpler and less challenging than that of light fading. 
36 
The affinity of dye for fibre molecules reduces the rate of absorption and desorption 
from the fibre. The dye-fibre attractive forces tend to keep the dye molecules and 
retard their diffusion along the pores of the fibre. The superior wash fastness of metal-
complex dyes is due to the ability of dye molecules to associate into large aggregates 
in the fibre, which have low absorption rates and not because of the additional forces 
of attraction between wool and metal ions (Vandana, 2002). 
2.13 Environmental aspects of natural dyeing 
Although dyes are deri\ ed from nature. the metallic salts used as mordants for better 
dye fixation on textile and to improve fastness, are not al·ways eco-friendl} (Gill. 
1991 ). Health hazards as well as the em ironment friendly behavior of n_atural dyes has 
t 
been investigated (Ali. 1993). Very little work has been carried to ;tSsess the toxicity 
of natural dyes. Only one or two have been identified as posing potential problems 
(Chavan, 1995). 
teo-friendliness of natural dyes is done by assessing the ceo-parameters viz. toxic 
heavy metals, pesticides, formaldehyde, pentachlorophenol, azo-dyes based on 
carcinogenic amines or banned amines etc by analyzing the dye extract. 
The mordant that are used for fixation and development of color on textiles are mainly 
Alum (Potassium aluminium sulphate), Tin (Stannou~chloride and Stannic chloride), 
Iron (Ferrous sulphate), Chromium (Potassium dichromate) and Copper (Copper 
sulphate). Out of these. copper and chrome arc red listed and have been restricted to 
some stipulated limits by various ceo-labels. On the basis of analysis of some natural 
. 
dyes like Katha, Jakwood, turmeric and indigo show the presence of arsenic, lead, 
mercury, copper and chromium less than 0.2 ppm which is much below the stipulated 
limit except for chromium. This shows that the natural metal contaminants in the dyes 
are very low and so can be used safely. But the concentrations of mordants used in 
dyeing are sometimes very high. Therefore optimization of mordants is necessary. 
Contamination of natural dyes and fibers by chorine-based pesticides may occur 
during the growing of plant from soil or during storage. The presence of any of the 
banned amines in natural dyes is ruled out because most of the natural dyes. whose 
structures are kno·wn as, based on quinines, flavonoids anthraquinonies, alkaloids, 
napthaquinone etc. and not based on azo-linkages (Bhattacharya . Doshi and 
Sahasrabudhe . 1998). 
37 
Moreover, while working with synthetic dyes the other perspective of this problem 
should also be taken into consideration, and that is the additional expenses for buying 
the cleaning equipment and making it work constantly in order to provide the safety 
and protection measures. Building the cleaning stuff and making it constantly working 
require a lot of big investments. This increases the cost of the fiber dyed with the 
artificial and chemical dyes. The third aspect of the issue is that the frequently used 
artificial and chemical dyes from the ecological point of view are harmful for people 
and the environment. This is because ~ithin the chemical dyes the elements like .. ant'· 
acid. sulphuric acid and the various combinations of manganese with the iron, 
aluminium, copper. chromium and of others are used (Internet 13). 
Tyrian Purple is obtained from a family of carnivorous shellfish. the yost common of 
which is found in the Mediterranean, that is Murex brandaris. Enormous numbers of 
shellfish were necessary to yield a very small quantity of dye. lf the dye were to be 
used for all present blue dyeings, let alone in mixtures with other natural dyes, it 
would result in some 200 square miles of land being deep in shells (Horrocks, 1996). 
Jherefore dyes from vegetable sources, including roots, as well as dyes of animal 
origin do not offer any easier environmental alternatives. Glover and Pierce have 
stated that in dyeing of wool, assuming an average depth of 1.7 %. some 43000 tones 
ofs)nthetic dyes are used. To replace the S}nthetic dy~ with natural dyes. 15 million 
tonnes of fresh plant would be required. ln the cotton sector. the analogous figures are 
even more dramatic. Taking the average depth or colour as 2 %. about 400 000 tones 
of S)nthetic dyes are used. To replace the synthetic dyes with natural dyes the weight 
. 
of fresh plants needed to extract the natural dyes would be 176 million tones and to 
grow that amount of vegetable matter for subsequent dye extraction. at least 30% or 
the world's agricultural land would be required (llorrocks, 1996). 
2.14 Comparison of environmental and safety aspects of natural and synthetic 
dyes 
... 
!he following can be presented as a summary from reviewing the- environmental 
aspects of synthetic vs. natural dyes 
Natural: 
• use of renewable resources 
• lack of toxicity during production and reduction of ~ork hazard 
• full biodegradation and reduction of the environmental impact 
38 
J 
• lack of toxicity of the end products 
Srnthetic: 
• consumption of non-renewable resources such as oi I and by-products 
• work hazard during production 
• high environmental impact during production and waste disposal 
• danger of allergies (dermatitis by contact) for consumers 
2.15 ~atural dyes and dyeing practices in Sri Lanka 
:n 'iri Lanka the practice of natural dyes goes back in history and it was practiced 
locally as a heritage of certain families or casts. The distribution of these families and 
the traditional dyeing practices carried out were based on the natural qistribution and 
U\·ailability of dye producing plants through out the island. The/dyeing was not 
restricted to dyeing textile materials but it was also used for religious wall paintings, 
handicrafts such as masks, mats and other such products, drums and coir based goods. 
Certain villages were and still are world famous for their natural dyed products such 
as handlooms. mats and masks, for example Dumbara mats and Ambalangoda masks. 
are still considered world class products (l nternct, 14 ). 
The basic dyes were always obtainable from certain specific plants naturally available 
in different regions of the country and the dyeing recipes and technology used depend 
on the methodology inherited by a particular communit). As a result. the same natural 
dye based on the same plant material will be extracted and dyed using different 
methodologies in different local communities (Coomaraswamy. 1908). Some of the 
. 
famous dyes. their extraction and dyeing techniques arc explained below: 
(a) Blue dyes 
fhe world popular blue dye, indigo, which was obtained from indigo plant (Nil 
awariya I lndigofera tinctoriu) and marketed in large scale by Java and India a century 
ago is also known and used in Sri Lanka (Tilakasiri, 1994). 
(b) Red dyes 
Patangi (Caesalpinia sappan) whose wood. boiled in pieces. yielded red dye valued 
for dyeing wood. rush and calico. was profusely used and quantities exported in the 
1920s (Tilakasiri. 1994). Annatto (Bixa ore/lana) shrub naturalised in Sri Lanka, 
bearing large clusters or crimson capule like fruits containing seeds with crimson 
CO\Cring } ielding a crimson dye of commercial value (Macmillan. 1943: Thilakasiri. 
39 
1994). Nearly hundred years ago, the plant was cultivated in Matale. The common 
shoe flower (Hibiscus rosasinensis) offered a red dye for use as a local colouring in 
cook.ery (Munidasa , 1988, Tilakasiri, 1994 ). Mannar also yields in abundance the 
Cha~a (0/denlandia umbel/ala I lledyotis wnhellata) root, which was once exported 
to Europe for the sake of its brilliant red dye (Tennent, 1860). 
(c) Yellow dyes 
Flowers of Gaskela (Flame of the Forest I Butea mvnvsperma) are used to produce a 
ydlow or orange red dye (Munidasa, 1988 ; Tilakasiri. 1994 ). Jak (Kos I Anocarpus 
heterophyllu.\) heartwood yields a yellov. dye used for dyeing mats and especially 
robes of Buddhist monks. etc. (Macmillan. 1943: Munidasa. 1988. Tilak:asiri. 1994). 
Rata Goraka (Garcinia xanthochymus) used for cloth dyeing. Dod, 'Kaha or Weli 
Kaha (Memecylon capitellatum) used for colouring mats and Sepalika (Nyctanthes 
trbor tristis) used for dyeing cotton arc also some of the plants used locally to 
produce yellow dyes (Macmillan eta./, 1943 ; Tilakasiri, 1994). 
(d) Brown dyes 
Divi Divi (Caesalpinia coriaria), which is a native plant of Central America and 
introduced into Sri Lanka in about 1834, is used for tanning using the extracts from its 
brown colour pods (Tilakasiri, 1994). Ranawara (Tanner's cassia I Cassia auricula/a) 
... 
a quick growing large shrub native to Sri Lanka is well known for its tanning ability of 
the bark (Munidasa. 1988; Tilakasiri, 1994). 
Some of the plants used in Ayurvedic prescriptions such as fruit juice of Sen Kottan, 
(Terminalia callappa) Medicinal nelli (f>hyllaflthus emhlica). aralu (Teminalia 
c:hehula) and bulu (Terminalia belerica) nuts also possess strong dyeing and tanning 
qualities, which have been known to the ancients (Tilakasiri. 1994). Apart from plants, 
lichens. which grow on them, are other sources of natural dyes. For example Orchella 
(Rocella montaguei), a pale, greenish gray lichen was formedy exported from Sri 
Lanka for the extraction of the dyes such as litmus, orchil. etc. (Macmillan el a!. 
1943). In Kandyan paintings yellow was prepared from gamboges from the Gokatu 
(Garcinia more!la) tree, blue from Indigo leaves and black from lamp black prepared 
b~ using Jak milk (Arlocarpus inle~rtfolius). Kekuna (Canarium ::eylanicum) oil and 
rosin (Hal Dummala) from the Hal (I 'ateria acuminala). Grass used for weaving mats 
t~ dyed red obtained from Patangi (Caesa!pinia sappan) and yellow from Kaha (Bixa 
ore/lana) or saffron. Ni) anda (Sansel'iemrnia Zelanic:a) fibre is dyed red with Patangi 
40 
(Caesalpinia sappan). yellow with a decoction of Weniwal (Coscinium 
/enestratum)and black with gallnuts 1\ralu (Teminalia chebula) and Bulu (Terminalia 
helerica) (Coomaraswamy, 1908). 
fwo different extraction methods of Patangi (Caesalpinia Sappan) were reported from 
1\iriella and Welimada (Coomaraswamy. 1908). At Niriella (Sabaragamu\\a area) the 
method takes four days to complete the extraction and dyeing of grass. On the first 
da) two handfuls of Korakaha (.\femecylon umbel/alum) leaves arc pounded in a 
mortar. squeezed out in water b)' hand. and the resulting liquid resembling Pea soup is 
strained; two handfuls of Patangi (Caesalpinia Sappan) chips are added and the whole 
lett to stand. On the second da)' the solution has become re_d; The Patangi 
(Caesalpinia Sappan) chips are removed. pounded. and replaced. aid the whole boiled 
with the Indi kola which is to be dyed. tied up in little sheaves. The pot is allowed to 
cool and left till next day. On the third day leaves of Bombu (Symplocos spicata) 
leaves. Hin Bovitiya (Osbeckia oclandra) and Korakaha (MemeLylon umbellatum), 
pieces of Kebella (Aporosa lindleyana). and a handful of yellow wood chips called 
Ahu (Morinda tinctoria). together with a small bundle of roots of Ratmul (Knoxia 
platycarpa) are pounded and added to the solution. in which the Indi leaves remain. 
The whole is boiled and allowed to cool and stand till next day when the lca\CS arc 
... 
remoYed and dried after which the)' are read) for use (Coomaraswamy. 1908). At 
Welimada. for a pound of Galchc (another grass used for mats. C.corymbosus) dyeing. 
two pounds of Korakaha or Velikaha (.\Jemecylon umbellatum). half a pound of 
Kiribatmul (root of Knoxia platycarpa). two pounds Patangi (Caesalpinia Sappan) 
chips. green saffron and lime are added to four pots of pure water. They are boiled for 
three days with a strong fire in the morning, slow fire during the day, and again strong 
lire in the evening and slow fire during the night. The pot is not removed from the 
hearth during the three days, after which the dyed grass can be removed and dried in 
the shade (Coomaraswamy, 1908). The colour thus produced by Patangi (Caesa/pinia 
Sappan) is a fine fast red. which does indeed fade slowly, but lasts as long as the mat 
is likely to. which is more than said of the aniline dyes, which have entirely replaced 
Patangi (Caesalpinia Sappan) in many districts (Internet. 15). 
It ma)' be mentioned that apart from the \er) few traditional dyeing applications. 
which function to date such as mat dyeing in Dumbara. the only natural dyeing 
technique practiced in the island is the robe dyeing of Buddhist monks. The yellO\\ 
41 
dye of priests robes is obtained from the wood of Jak (Artocarpus heteropyl/us) 
(Munidasa. 1988 ; Coomaraswamy, 1908 ; Tilakasiri, 1994). Small chips of Jak wood 
arc boiled for a day in pure water and the cloth is soaked in this extraction. The 
extraction is sometimes boiled with Bomboo (S'ymp/ocos spica/a) leaves or the cloth 
previously soaked in a boiled extraction of Bomboo (S)mplocos spica/a) leaves 
(Internet. 16). In any case the jak (Artocarpus heteropyllus ) wood extraction is 
strained and left to cool before soaking the cloth (Internet, 17). The dyeing is repeated 
at least four times to get a better colour) ield. The ycllo'' dye is not permanent but can 
he easily renewed. The use of Sepalika (l\:)·ctanthes arbortristis) flower extract 
rollowed by this first dyeing gi\'es a brighter colour (Coomarasvvamy. 1908). 
There arc also many other plants and shrubs used for the purpo~ 'of dyeing and 
tanning on a small scale, but their specific properties and characteristics have never 
been studied scientifically. They were also not commercially exploited since the 
production was meant for a small populace, but still show the effectiveness of their 
usage for the specific design and form of the article (Tilakasiri, 1994). In the literature 
survey of natural dye practices in Sri Lanka details of natural dye were found under 
several areas. Pigments and dyes were used in dyeing cotton yarn (Robe dyeing), 
painting murals, mat weaving. masks, Batik, body painting and in lacquer work etc. 
All these were made using various resins extracte<t from plant matter. insect's 
secretions. and from clays. Although these arts are not commonly practiced today 
according to their early manner \-\'ith the use of natural dyes. people in some parts of 
Sri Lanka still use the early procedures and materials. The best examples are weavers 
. 
of .. Talagune·· and "Maduramunai" (Internet, 17-19). 
In painting and dyeing, predominant colours used were yellow, red. white, black. blue 
and green and they were made as follows (llorrocks, 1996): 
Yellow: Made from the secretions made by cutting the bark of Gokatu (Garcinia 
merella) tree. 
White: Made using the type of butter clay (Kirimati) known as makul clay. This clay 
mainly came from makul caves of Maturata and hence also known also as Maturata 
makul. 
Black: lt was made first by grinding kohollc (Artocarpus integrifolius) (dried milk 
extracted from Jak fruit). resin of Hal ( Ory=a saliva) tree in Kekuna (Conarium 
42 
:eylancium) oil and mixing it with old rags. The mixture is then burned in a closed 
vessel. The deposits on the lid were used as the pigment. 
Red: Made by grinding the sadilingam (( 'inna har) found in caves in Meemure area 
and dissolving it in water and warm with juice of Ratmal (fxora coccinea. L) bark. 
Blue: Blue v.-as rarely used in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa , even in Kandyan 
~riod murals. It was made extracting the juice ofl'\ilavariya (Jndigofera tinctorea) 
leaves. 
Green: It was made by mixing yellow and blue. The lighter shades were made b) 
adding \\hitc to dark colours. 
Gold: The gold colour also used in some paintings and was made by· grinding the 
I 
mineral hiriyal (Opriment in lump) or ran hiriyal (scaly Oprirrient) and baking. 
Another recipe gives the following description for making colours for wider 
application. 
Equal parts of hiriyal and ran hi riyal was taken and ground with juice of Milia ( Vitex 
altissima. L.) bark. Gammalu (Pterocarpus Marsupium. Rox. b.) bark and Gokatu 
(Garcinia morella. Desr.) bark and it is roasted with black badama (varnish 
composition). Badulla (Semecarpus gardneri. Thw.) milk, Keppetiya lakada (Gardinia 
lati{olia) and Hal-dummala (resin from tree J'ateria acuminate. Hayne) and old jak 
milk (Artocarpus integrifolius) in equal parts are mixed and ground these together and 
warm. 
Yello" (badama): Gokatu (Garceinia Morella) juice hiriyal (Opiment in lump) and 
ratukaha (Bixa ore/lana. L) is taken in equal parts collected old jak milk (Artocarpu.\ 
integrijolius) and ground with dorana (Dipterocarpus glandulosus) oil and applied it 
and polished with Cheeta's tooth gold coloured badama (Varnish). Equal parts of 
hiriyal (Opiment in lump). gokatu (Garceinia morel/a) milk, quick silver. alum, sal-
ammoniac borax and white lead (sudu iyan) arc taken and ground in dorana 
(Dipterocwpus grandulosus) oil apply to any surface and polished it with Cheeta's 
tooth. 
To a limited degree. Sri Lanka has used extracts from mangrove plants as valuable 
sources of dyes (Horrocks. 1996). 
43 
2.16 History of dyeing practices 
Records have been found for paintings in wooden surfaces and textiles in the Sri 
Lankan history. Paintings on wooden surfaces arc found on the ceilings of religious 
buildings, manuscript covers, screens, boxes used to store sacred objects and votive 
tablets. Godapitiya Rajamaha Vihara and Kadurugahamaditta Gangarama Vihara 
posses two large wooden boxes \\ith the Dhahamsonda .Jataka painted on both. 
,: 
' 
' 
'tf 
~ ,~ ( ,; 
j. :-(, 
( '• 
'f ..., 
" 
r_; 
f.\ C'il 
. ·~ .. 0 J IS.i ~· 
: ·-, . • ~ .i 
. . ~. f 
···~·· ! . ,, ·;~ ·~ 
' .:-11 • 
. r: 
Figure 2.4 Puskola or Ola book (Sinhalese and Sanskrit palm leaf manuscripts which 
have inestimable archeological, cultural and scientific values) from 
Ambakke Muhandiram (Madya kalecna Sinh~a Kala, pp 179) 
There are numerous literary references to the practice of painting on cloth in Sri Lanka 
from as earl) as the second centur} BC to the nineteenth century. The great chronicle 
Mahavamsa has it that as King Outthagamani lay qying. Saddhatissa. having CO\ercd 
the half finished Maha Thupa with white cloth over a wooden fran1e, commanded 
painters to make on it a vedika duly and rows of filled vases likewise and the row with 
the five finger ornament'. Due to the non-durability of the material, only the 
eighteenth century examples are extent today. In terms of iconographic tradition, 
compositional arrangements. figurative forms. treatment of design and colour 
schemes. the surviving examples of petikada bear a relationship to the temple murals 
of the Kandyan style. 
Pctikada may provide the clue to a missing link in the records of the Buddhist 
paintings of Sri Lanka bet-ween the thirteenth and the eighteenth century. The st) listie 
origins of Kandyan painting which proliferated in the eighteenth century are shrouded 
in myster). as it is diametrically opposed in style to the pre-thirteenth century classical 
44 
paints available. In the absence of any immediate temple painting tradition to follow, 
the Kandyan painters may have been inspired by the paintings on cloth (Internet. 20). 
2.16.1 Mural painting 
Most of our colour paintings can be seen at Buddhist temples. There are certain other 
traditional colour paintings. but the overall amount of those paintings are negligible 
when comparing with temple paintings. However the majority of painting designs can 
be seen in traditional paintings rather than temple paintings. 
The paintings of Sri Lanka can be sub-categoriLed as follo\>\-s: 
Paintings on the walls of temples. Dcwala and on the roofs of ca\ e temples such as 
Dambulla and Degaldoruwa. 
(a) Painting on ceilings, wooden doors and \\Oodcn tO\vers. / 
(b) Paintings on javelins, walking sticks and sticks for flags. 
(c) Paintings of pottery industry. 
(d) Paintings on upholstery and certain flags. 
(e) Paintings on '·Bali'' (Falk dance) & Thoran (decorated with lanterns, lights and 
special displays of lights). 
It was an essential task of an artist at that time to know about the preparation and 
usage of different colours in ancient paint industry. 
<;;ome of the colors were prepared as follows. 
Yellow 
(a) from "Gokatu tree'' (Garceinia morel/a) 
(b) from "Hiriyar (Opiment in Jump) 
... 
1/iriyal \\as used for pottery and furniture paintings. As it was difficult to find the 
.. Cvkatu trees" (Garceinia morel/a), IIi riyal (Opiment in lump )was widely used for 
paintings at that time. 
Red 
(a) from ··sadilingam·· (Cinna har) 
(b) from '"Gurugal" (Kapok found in river beds) 
(c) A dark red colour was obtained using Sadilingam (Cinna hw~. The special feature 
of this colour \Vas its durability. The red color prepared from Gurugal (Kapok 
found in river beds) was fairly brownish red and it was so called as "Guru··. This 
colour was widely used to sho\\ the sharp points of the drawings. It was also used 
45 
for pottery painting and Bali (Falk dance) & Thoran (decorated with lanterns, 
lights and special displays of lights) which did not last for a long time. 
Blue 
This colour was prepared using the juice oC"Awariya tree" (Jndigofera tinctorea). The 
colour vvas not the basic blue color and it was rather a greenish blue. The colour was 
rer} rarely used in the ancient paintings. Generally the ancient people did not 
\!cognize any difference between blue and green. In present time also people arc 
calling the both colours as blue. For some paintings of ··Vishnu"', (God of Sinhala 
Buddhists) instead of blue it was used a dark ashy colour prepared by mixing black 
and v. hite. 
Green (Pachcha) -Tattos I 
This colour was prepared by mixing blue and yellow colours. The tenn "Pachcha·· 
(tattos) is locally used for this green colour and it was related to the Gem industry, 
""here there is a particular type of gem with this colour and so calling "Pachcha" 
(tattos). For Bali & Thoran, this colour was prepared using "Ranawara ·· (Gassia 
auriculata) and "Kehipittan" (Cyclea barmanni) juice. The amount used in the ancient 
paintings is fairly low. 
Black 
... 
This v.:as a stable colour. The colour was prepared by burning a mix of··Haldummafa"' 
(f'ateria accuminata hyne). "'Kekuna oir ( Canarium :eylancium), jak tree milk and 
wear off cloths. The prepared colour was locally called "Kaluanduna·· (A relatively 
unstable black colour was obtained by mixing the oil with burned coconut shell). 
White 
This was prepared using clay called "Makulu" (type of butter clay) which is being 
used for ceiling painting in present days. 
White or Black colour was added accordingly, whenever it was needed to lighten or 
darken a particular colour. Ramba (orange) colour vvas prepared by mixing yellov. and 
red. The Ramba (orange) colour arc seeing in the ancient paintings is not the actual 
~ 
Ramba colour. It was so seen, because the pure yellow color in the paintings had 
darkened a bit to Ramba (orange) colour, after applying some varnish on those 
original paintings. Even when mixing yellO\\ colour vvith ··D01·ana oil"' 
(Dipterocarpus glandulosus) the Ramba colour (Orange colour) can be obtained. 
46 
Grinding. mixing and preparation of paints were basically done by the students who 
were learning about the paintings at that time. The raw materials were well ground 
and then mixed with the sticky solvents. Sticky juice from cashew (Anacardium 
occidentale) and Wood apple (Feronia limonia) trees were used as the solvent. 
rhcre is not much evidence of ancient paintings on clothes. But it is mentioned in 
··Afahawamsa·· (A book consisting of historical background of the Sri Lankan nation 
\Hitten in sanskrit) that during the second and thirteenth centuries there were certain 
t) pes of paintings in Sri Lanka. There were tv.,o types of cloth paintings at that time. 
Those arc dyeing and water colour painting. In the present time these d)eing 
techniques are extensive!) used in the textile industry. fhose ancient cl~th paintings 
were used to depict the life stor) of Lord Buddha and famous '·55fJt.fathaka katha" 
(Ancient stories consisting of various incidences of Budha"s life). The painted clothes 
were used to decorate the "Pirith Mandapa" (A special place decorated to chant 
Buddhist religious verses) and "Darma .%ala'' (A place where Buddhist gather to hear 
Buddha's teachings by a priest). Some of these old cloth paintings can be seen at 
National Museum. Colombo (Madya kalecna Chithra Kalawa. paintings of Medieval 
stage). 
2.16.2 Apsara paintings 
... 
The most famous features of the Sigiri) a complex are the fifth-century paintings 
found in a depression on the rock face more than I 00 metres above ground le\ el. The 
Sigiriya paintings have been the focus of considerable interest and attention in both 
ancient and modem times. 
Most of the ancient graffiti are notes or poems referring to the Sigiriya Maidens. The 
long history of Buddhist painting in Sri Lanka falls into two clearly identifiable 
periods: the Classical and the Kandyan. The Classical period can be dated from the 
existing records to a period from the fifth to the twelfth or the thirteenth century: and 
the Kandyan period from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century. Fresco paintings of 
the beautiful damsels interpreted by historians as apsaras (celestial nymphs) executed 
on lime plaster on a pocket of western face of the fifth century rock fortress of King 
Kassapa (478-496) at Sigiriya represent the earliest datable, the best preserved and the 
most outstanding examples of the classical st)' le (Internet, 20). The colours used for 
these paintings were obtained from natural sources like Sadalingam (Cinnabar) from 
47 
(Green colour), Hiriyal (Orpiment in lump) from soil (yellow colour), Nil aweriya 
(lndigofera tinctoria) (blue colour) etc., 
Figure 2.5 Apsara paintings at Sigiriya 
2. 16.3 The caves and paintings 
/ 
The Dambulla temple is composed of five caves which have been converted into 
shrine rooms. Within these rooms is housed a collection of one hundred and fifty 
statues of the Buddha and several more of devotees. 
In its conventions particularly in the decorative designs and representation of trees and 
creepers. The paintings are executed in brilliant colour schemes, where yellow and red 
are predominant (Internet, 20). The Darnbulla dapata reads that some caves of 
Darnbulla were painted on the orders of King Senarath (1604-1635 AD). This would 
mean that they were executed by the Kandyan artists of the l71h century. During the 
period of Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe the paintings were renovated and over-painted again. 
Paintings in cave no. 4 belong wholly to the new Sinhala School of painting which 
tlourished in the Kandyan provinces after the 171h century (Internet, 21). 
• 
Figure 2.6 Cave paintings at Darnbulla temple 
48 
2.16.4 Robe dyeing 
Formerly monks had to make and dye their own robes. Modern monks are so well 
supported by lay devotees that they have forgotten their humble roots. To remind them 
of their gratitude to their benefactors, monks are required to go through the tedious 
process of making and dyeing their own robes at least once. 
:\'atural dyes were prescribed by the Buddha to match the allowable shades of robe 
colour. The production of such dyes is time-consuming and many of them fade or run 
after a few washings. It is educational for a monk to learn how to make such natural 
dyes and use them to dye his robes. Howe' er. for practical reasons we can use 
chemically dyed cloth to make robes and re-dye them with self-mad~ dye. 1 hai forest 
monks use jak fruit pith while some Burmese monks use ficulbark or shells of 
ironwood fruits to make robe-dye. Mahogany barks had been used by some monks in 
Sri Lanka to make their dye for robes (Internet, 22). 
The Katina robe was at first sewn by the monks themselves with the cloth offered by 
buddhist people. The cloth was cut up to specifications and sc~n according to a set 
pattern and dyed in water with some pieces of jak wood, giving the yellow dye. 
Dyeing a robe was extremely difficult because they had to boil the bark of the tree to 
get the colour wanted (Internet, 23). ... 
2.16.5 Mat weaving 
This is done as a handicraft and mats come with beautiful inter woven patterns, ratas 
(motifs), floral designs and with figures of trees, birds etc. The reed Hawcn Pan 
(Cyperes dehiscens), Galehe Pan (C.corymbosu~). Tunhiriya (Colubrina asiatica). 
Dunukaiya (Pandanus.foetidu~). Indi (Phoenix :::ey/anica) arc used for mats. The mats 
made with galehe and wetakeyia are more robust for wear and tear. These reeds arc 
cut and dried on ground in shade and in sun. The Palmirah (Borassus jlabell((ormi.\) 
and Talpat (Cm}pha umhraculiferu) leaves are used for large mats (magal). which are 
mainly used for drying paddy, cover the floors and walls. To have motifs the reed 
(pan) is dyed with traditional pigments made by coloured clays and vegetable extracts. 
The red colour for mat weaving is obtained by boiling chopped patengi (Caesalpinia 
Sappan) stems with korakaha (Memecylon umbellatum) leaves (Internet, 23). 
The famous Dumbara mats as name suggests were woven in Dumbara \alley in the 
suburbs of Kandy. It is made not by hand but with a ver) primitive type or a loom. 
49 
This setup, similar to the loom used to weave clothes was normally installed in the 
courtyard of the house, produced a (special sized) mat with traditional motifs. The 
bird, elephant, tree, lion arc the common patterns used in the Dumbara mats, and they 
are used as wall hangings, seat covers etc. These mats were sought by high Sri Lankan 
society few years back. With the increasing trend for machine made goods the demand 
for arts and crafts have tended to decline. 
Today, there is an increasing worldwide trend for eco friendly goods as people 
gradually tend to go back to nature. Such a development will have a future for 
indigenous crafts such as the weaving of Dumbara mats which is unique to Sri Lanka. 
A unique Sri Lankan handicraft in the form of a wall hanging mainly pro?uced in a 
village call Henawala in the Dumbara valley of Kandy (Internet, 23). I 
The Dumbara mats were made also from the Niyanda (Sansevieria zeylanica). This is 
no longer prevalent due to the scarcity of the plant and insufficient fiber for large-
scale manufacture (Coomaraswamy, 1908). It appears that the shift from Niyanda 
(Sansevieria ::eylanica) to hana (Furcraea gigantean) was beginning to take place. At 
present weavers purchase leaves from growers of some 30-40 miles away. The leaves 
are scraped against along with a sharp implement and this removes the fleshy part of 
the leaf leaving behind the fiber. Then the fibres are dried in the sun before they are 
... 
dyed. The fiber is then dyed with natural dyes obtained from plants such as patangi 
(Caesa/pinia sappan) which yields a red dye, weniwai (Cosciniumfenestratum) which 
gives a yellow dye, katarolu (Clitorea terneata) which gives a purplish dye and bulu 
(Terminalia belerica) which yields a black dye whef\.combined with mordamts. 
The Dumbara mats produced here are however strictly speaking not mats in the 
conventional sense, as they are not meant to sit, but rather in the form of wall 
hangings. These wall hangings come in a variety of colours and designs with motifs of 
flowers and various fauna and flora. (Internet, 24). 
Figure 2.7 Dumbara mats 
50 
2.16.6 Masks 
The legacy of centuries of master crafismanship, ingenuity and inbred skill, these 
goods are turned out using age-old techniques, tools and natural indigenous material, 
mainly in the homes of craftsmen or occasionally at rural craft centers. A marked 
degree of regional specializations exists, based on the availability of raw materials as 
well as other factors such as royal patronage in the past and the demand for products. 
Figure 2.8 Masks painting in Sri Lanka 
To make brushes for painting, the fiber of the roots of the Vetake tree (Pandanus 
tectorious), hairs of animals, Alliadu (a mixture of resin powder and oil) stones or 
fossilized matters, skins, flowers and leaves of trees were used. To mix colours, tree 
oil called Dorana (Dipterocarpus grandulosus) oil and resin were used. To provide a 
durable coat, a mixture of resin powder of dummala (resin), tree oil, dorana oil 
(Dipterocarpus glandulosus) and clay (Alliyadu) was applied. This surface was 
... 
smootherized with the spathe of the bread-fruit flower (Del saveran) Then painting 
started. Usually yellow was applied as a basic colour, and then the detailed painting 
was done. To protect the colours, a mixture of resin powder and tree oil (Valichchia) 
was applied on the mask. 
2.16.7 Batiks 
There are several countries known for their batik creations, starting with India where it 
originated. After that it moved to Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thai land and the 
West. The history of Indian batik can be traced as far back as 2000 years. Indians were 
conversant with the resist method of printing designs on cotton fabrics long before any 
other nation had even tried it. Rice starch and wax were initially used for printing on 
fabrics. 
It consists of applying a design to the surface of the cloth by using melted wax. The 
material is then dipped in cool vegetable dye; the portions protected by the wax do not 
51 
receive the dye, and when the wax is removed in hot water the previously covered 
areas display a light pattern on the colored ground. 
India has always been noted for its cotton and dyes. The indigo blue, which is the 
basic color for batik, is one of the earliest dyes. In the past, batik was considered as a 
fitting occupation for aristocratic ladies vvhosc delicately painted designs based on 
bird and flo"ver motifs were a sign of cultivation and refinement just as fine 
needlework vvas for European ladies of similar position. The beauty of batik lies in its 
simplicity and the fact that one need not be an artist to achieve results. Some of the 
best effects in batik are often achieved by chance. 
2.16.8 Lacquer work 
I"he lacquer work is a traditional craft especially in Kandyan areas dole by carpenters, 
or the arrow makers. The products ranges from scsath handles, beeralu fanlight and 
window uprights, heppu (betel receptors), boxes, Puskola book (Sinhalese and 
Sanskrit palm leaf manuscripts which have inestimable archeological, cultural and 
scientific values) covers. incense containers, dragger handles and even axe and spear 
handles etc. There are two types of items the turned ones and the hand applied ones. 
lhc ra\\ material used are coloured lacquer, which comes from the resin of tvvo 
t}pes obtained from insects in Keppitiya (Croton arot'flaticus) or kon (Schleicheria 
rrij'uga) lakada plants. The other variety green comes from telakiriya (Tachardia 
conchiferata). The craft is carried out in Hapu\ ida Matale. Paleekanda in Balangoda 
and in Patha Dumbara and in Angalmaduwa near Tangalle. The twigs having the lac 
. 
insects are sun dried and the resin is removed and after winnowing put inside a clean 
cloth and heated over fire. The melted resin that oozes out are collected by wrapping 
on two sticks and drawn to fibre. The heating and drawing is repeated until the resin 
clear brown resin is obtained then this is mixed with powdered for basic colours red 
by adding (vermilion - sadilingam), yellow (orpiment-hiriyal), black (as in painting) 
and green (to yellow). 
The "niyapotu work" (Nail painting) is done by finger nail by wrapping the finely 
drawn fiber /thread over the article held over the cinders. A heated Tal leaf is rubbed 
over to flatten and to polish the design. In lathe \vOrk similar to the ivorj bench but the 
article is turned by a bovv string. The coloured lacquer is applied one by one b) 
holding it to the turning artifact and followed by holding a grove shaped split over the 
52 
lacquer. The heat generated by friction melts the lacquer and spread it evenly over the 
desired area to be coloured. The other colours too arc applied in the same manner. 
Once the application of colour is complete the Tal leaf is applied lightly to the turning 
object to smoothen the lacquered surface and to polish it. 
The village call Pallehapuwita of Matale district is famous for lac work. Lac is a form 
of wax obtained from a species of insect in the past. This wax mixed with colours is 
applied on wooden objects with the help of a hand driven lathe. 
Nowadays imported wax called shellac is used instead of Lac obtained from insects 
and produce Powder bowls, vases, walking sticks, jewelry boxes etc., 
I 
Figure 2.9 Laquor painted items 
2.16.9 Body painting 
... 
Natural clays and pigments made from a great variety of plants and minerals are often 
m1xed with vegetable oils and animal fat to make body paint. These include red and 
yellow ochre (iron rich clay), red cam wood, cinnabar, gold dust, many roots, fruits 
and flowers, cedar bark, white kaolin, chalk, and temporary skin dyes made from 
indigo and henna leaves. People all over the world adorn the living and also treat the 
dead with body paint. 
The vcddha people in Sri Lanka apply ground plant leaves on their bodies for their 
protection from sunlight as well as from poisonous plant types in the forest, when they 
are going for hunting (Internet, 24). 
2.16.10 Hair dyeing ~ 
Hair is one of the easiest and most obvious parts of the body subject to change, and 
combing and washing hair is part of everyday grooming in most cultures. Styles of 
combing, braiding, parting, and wrapping hair can signify status and gender, age and 
53 
ritual status, or membership in a certain group. Henna and shoe flowers are used to 
dye hair. 
There are two common sources of brown, henna from a plant, and a dye leached from 
certain tree wood. Henna (Hawsonia interims) comes from a small shrub which grows 
m warm climates, especially in India and in North Africa. Almost all of the plant 
above ground can be used; the stem leaves and flowers. As the moisture varies, so 
docs the deepness of the color. After grinding to powder, it is mixed with hot water to 
form a paste. This is then painted on the skin as a design, or added to the dye pot as a 
dye. It can be allowed to dry and stored as cakes of dye, and is suitable as trade 
commodity. Many variations can be obtained by mixing with other plant leaves, as 
: 
from coffee shrub, lemon tree, etc. However, the shade tends to becomJ lighter with 
the mixing, which is why the darker the shade the more valuable. The henna found in 
Africa tends to black and is called black henna. 
The crushed leaves of the henna plant, when mixed with other natural ingredients, 
ytclds a thick, fragrant paste used for painting hands and feet. The olive green, dried 
henna powder, once mixed with such ingredients as black tea and coffee, cloves and 
tamarind, turns dark. Once the paste is applied on the skin, it is allowed to dry, 
sometimes overnight. The dried henna is scrapped off the..,skin resulting in a maroon-
red stain. Henna has traditionally also been used for hair conditioning and dyeing, skin 
antiseptic and tonic, and as cloth and leather dye. The use of henna goes far beyond 
usc as a dye. It has many superstitious attachments, and many medicinal uses, real or 
imaginary. The usc of henna can be traced back 5000 years, and its origin is lost to 
antiquity. When used as an art form to adorn the body, the art is called mchandi ; this is 
becoming popular in the United States recent years (lnternet, 24). 
Figure 2.10 Body paintings by Henna 
54 
n Sri Lanka henna is called namely by maruthani. The art form of henna (maruthani) 
varies from region to region. Varying designs have a different meaning for members 
of each culture, such as good health, fert il ity, wisdom, protection and spiritual 
enlightenment. While Arabic henna designs are usually large, floral patterns on the 
'lands and feet, maruthani involves fine, thin lines for lacy, floral and paisley patterns 
covering entire hands, forearms, feet and shins. However in Sri Lanka the use of 
henna is limited. Availability of maruthani in our country is less and can be obtained 
in some areas such as North and Western provinces. 
2.11 Hand Loom weaving 
2.17.1 The Moor weavers of Marudamunai 
The Moorish town of Marudarnunai in the Am para district has a tradidon of weaving 
said to go back to Kandyan times. The Moors here, it is believed, were settled in the 
days of King Senarath for purposes of weaving and dyeing cloth, a tradition that 
continues to this day. Although these expert Ncsavalar or weavers formerly 
manufactured garments such as somans and sirwals which are no longer used, they 
now largely produce sarees and sarongs to meet the demands oftoday's market. 
The garments produced then were of cotton and included sarongs for men and 
carnboys and somans for the womenfolk, besides other sundry items such as shawls 
and towels. They used natural dyes such as turmeric and kadakai for their products, a 
practice which however died out sometime ago with the introduction of synthetic 
dyes. It was only recently that natural dyes were reintroduced into the area and these 
arc now largely used for dyeing fabric which has much demand among foreigners. 
The weavers here made carnboys which were widely worn by Sinhalese women and 
known as kambaya. 
Figure 2.11 A woman at the loom 
55 
\1arudamunai also manufactured a garment known as soman which was similarly 
worn by the Moor women of the east, though they were far more expensive than the 
kambayas. These somans too were made of cotton, though sometimes silk was used 
for the border. 
!'he natural dyes used to dye fabric in Marudamunai arc made by combining plant 
matter v.ith mordants. For instance, Walmadata and soda ash gives a pink colour 
\\hile tea and potassium permanganate yields a brown colour. Aralu, alum and alzarin 
g \es an orange bro\m colour while tea and ferrous sulphate yields a silvery black 
colour. A combination of aralu and potassium permanganate gives a dark black 
colour. Marathondi which is widely used by Muslim women to decorate their hands 
. 
and feet is also used to dye fabric and gives a light red colour. Natur~}dyed fabric is 
especially in demand by foreigners and consequently fetches a high price (Internet, 
24). 
2.17.2 The cotton weavers ofTalagune 
the weaving of home made cotton items which were flourishing earlier in the Kandy 
01strict, today it is confined to only one solitary village. Talagune in the Udu 
Dumbara area. About 10 to 12 fami lies' resident here for generations have produced 
eye-eating traditional motives. The items produced incLude wall hangings, cushion 
CO\ers, bags and other utility items. Cotton weavers of Talagune are the sole 
custodians of an ancient craft. Little is known that the weaving of traditional 
homemade cottons once widely prevalent in the Kandyan vicinity. For generations 
weavers turned out beautiful cottons adorned with traditional motifs known as 
Dumbara rataa captivate the hearts of not only of Sri Lankans but also foreigners. 
Wall hangings cushion covers and bags are the items that are made according to age-
old methods. Younger generations have acquired this skill and they are moving 
towards modern and colorful designs which are likely to have demand in the days to 
come. 
The weavers of Talagune trace their origins to Rakshagoda, the very place where the 
legendary Kuveni who espoused Prince Vijaya lived. According to historical 
Mahavamsa Kuveni when first seen by one of Vijaya's followers was spinning like a 
woman hermit and it is onl) natural to suppose that the art of weaving should 
somehov. be connected to her. A thriving industry is believed to have flourished here 
v 
56 
before it gradually spread to the other areas in the days of the Sinhala kings. Now the 
art is only surviving Talagunc. 
In the work of Mediaeval Sinhalese Art observed nearly a hundred years ago that the 
weaving of homespun cotton cloth once universal in the Kandyan provinces was only 
done at Talagune. and perhaps occasionally ncar Vcllassa in Uva and not long ago in 
Balangoda. The industry sti ll flourishes a little; two families have looms, and a 
number of the village lasses are skilled in spinning (Internet, 24). 
Although the villagers toda) procure their cotton from outside sources. it appears that 
in the olden days they gre"' their O\.\n cotton trees at 'Kappili Tenne Hena' the village 
not far from where these families reside clearly proves this. 
, 
Dyeing of the thread too seems to have been done by the villagers u~g natural dyes 
obtained from the bark and leaves of trees. The patterns include the designs from 
fauna & these designs have undergone some modification with time. The loom used to 
weave the final product somewhat resembles the old looms used in cotton weaving, 
though it is a much simpler device. The weaving itself appears to be a time-consuming 
process and needs a lot of skill and patience (Internet. 24). 
!he colours are strictly in keeping with tradition and are not very varied, being either 
red, orange or black and white. ' 
rhe large scale textile sector has taken synthetic dyes as the basis for their operation. 
There is only a small segment of operation that relies on natural dyes for their textile 
colourations. 
The review presented was carried out to determine the rich heritage of Sri Lanka 
associated with natural dyes. It appears that there had been many practices and rich 
outputs based on these practices. 
Currently small scale natural dyeing practices are being carried out by the Department 
of Textile Industries situated in Katubedda and Rajagiriya. To enhance this area of 
natural dyeing department is being carrying out several workshops. seminars on this 
area. Some products from Sri Lankan natural dye industry is demonstrated in Figures 
2.12 - 2.15 (~atural dyeing plant at Rajagiriya, Colombo. Sri Lanka). 
57 
Figure 2.13 Natural dyed woven saree 
Figure 2.14 Industrial scale natural dyeing Figure 2.15 Natural dye kitchen 
. ... !1 
• 
~ 
• ~ ~.~:«, ~Tr. 
' •~l r.1c~ 
SRi LANKA 
• 
• 
• • 
• 
Figure 2.16 Spread of activities involving, natural dyes in Sri Lanka 
58 
2.18 Recent developments of natural dyes 
!he usc of natural dyes has increased substantially during the last couple of years. 
lhcsc dyes arc being mainly used by: 
(a) Traditional dyers and printers 
(h) Academic Institutes and Research Associations/Laboratories 
(c) Industry 
(d) Designers 
(e) llobb) groups 
() \!on-government organizations (NGO's) 
(g) Museums 
t 
The use of natural dyes. particularly as a hobby. ha<; continued in spite_Jfthe advent or 
synthetic dyes. Of late. this activity has increased considerably particularly in US 
\.\here many organization have been formed to discuss about these dyes and organize 
workshops and training programmes on regular basis. A quarterly journal 'Turkey Red 
Journal' covers information about the workshops and the activities of various hobby 
groups. The easy accessibility of internet has also given impetus to this activity, where 
\arious individuals exchange notes almost on daily basis. Many companies have come 
out with Hobby Kits for beginners. In India. Alps Industries have come out with a 
... 
large range of do-it-yourself kits for others. Table 2.13 summerises some companies 
selling natural dyes in USA. 
Table 2.13 US companies selling natural dyes through internet 
1. Jane's Fiber Works http://greene.xtn.net/-~ ber/dyes.html 
2. The Mannings Catalog http://the-manning s.com 
--
3. /v.rww.hillcreek.com Carol Leigh's llillcrcck Fiber Studio http:/  
--
4. m Mawia Handprints http://www.maiwa.co  
5. Louet Sales http://www.cybcrtap.com 
6. La Lana Wools http://www.taaosfiber.com 
2.19 Estima tes of dye requirements 
The demand consumption potential for natural dyes will be small in the initial years 
being related to a select segment of hand loom products. Thus natural dyes are unlike!) 
to threaten the market for synthetic dyes in the foreseeable future. With noYelt; and 
\arict) of shades. natural dyes would indeed complement the synthetic dyes hopcfull} 
59 
open up new potentials. 
'I he consumption of synthetic dyes has been estimated to be close to one million tones 
p~:r year. As per the report of the German ministry of food, agriculture and forestry 
about 90.000 tones of natural dyes can be produced every year. The production of 
natural dyes requires agricultural land. It is estimated that about 250-500 million acres 
of land will be required to produce about 100 million tones of plant material needed to 
produce one million tones of natural dyes. This land requirement corresponds to I 0-20 
0
·o of the area cultivated for grain throughout the world. 
\llegro natural dyes com pan) has set a target to replace about I % of the S) nthetic 
dyes \\Orld\\ ide. According to their calculations. they shall require 0.02 ~o:of the total 
arable crop land. USA is one of the major importers of natural dyes. ]he total import 
of these dyes, which is about 3.5 MT per year, works out to be 0.4 %of the synthetic 
dyes. Imports of natural dyes of EU countries were 5300 tones for the year 1995. This 
accounts for 0.53 % of the synthetic dyes. Besides this in many countries the dyes arc 
produced for local consumption, which may also, be about I MT. From the foregoing 
it is apparent that the present requirements of the natural dyes arc about 10 MT. which 
1s equivalent to I %of the \\Orld synthetic dyes consumption (Internet. 24 ) . 
... 
60 
Chapter Three 
STUDY M ETHODOLOGY 
3.1 Materials and Methods 
3.1. 1 Literature review 
Comprehensive literature review on the field of interest in this project (i.e. natural 
dyes) was carried out and presented in chapter T\vO. It included the early usc of 
natural dyes in the world. Asia and Sri LanJ...a. the source of obtaining natural dyes and 
methods of extracting dyes. It also included the nC\\ trends in the global market 
tov.ards natural dyes. 
Although there are three main sources of getting natural dyes viz p~ts. animals and 
minerals. 
3.1.2 Robe dyeing 
After investigating all the current dyeing practices. robe dyeing was selected for the 
'itudy due to its importance and its continuity across many parts of the country. The in 
depth study is expected to demonstrate and yield issues facing this type of practices. 
After several discussions with the temple priest. the traditional robe dyeing procedure 
was carried out in a temple situated in Kandy (Gallangolla Temple). Sc\ era! 
discussions ""ith the temple priest were carried out. A \\ hite cotton robe was dyed 
with the assistance of the temple priest. 
rhc steps of a traditional robe dyeing process are: . 
(a) The robe was first prepared by stitching previously cut standard white fabric 
p1eces. 
(b) The dye solution was prepared by boiling chopped jak (A. heterophyllus) bark 
until the required colour (dark yellow) appeared in the solution. 
(c) Extracted solution was strained and used for dyeing. 
(d) Then the robe was soaked in the solution ofjak (A. heterophyl/us) extract (Figure 
3.la & 3.1 b). For the required time (about 2 hr) until the required shade appeared. 
(e) Dyed robe was washed in clean water and dried under sunlight. 
Laboratory trials were done on this process to confirm the process. 
61 
a Pandu Oruwa b 
Figure 3.1 a, b Dyeing of the robe and squeezing 
Laboratory scale operation of the above procedure was carried to ensw:_e:better results 
' 
and to overcome drawbacks of traditional robe dyeing which jOuld give more 
reproducibility. 
Prior to dyeing, the robe was soaked in the Bomboo (Symplocos spicata) solution 
which was prepared by boiling 1.0 kg of Bomboo (Symplocos spicata) chips in 8 I of 
water for 2 hrs to remove impurities, then squeezed and left in the shade for few 
minutes to dry. 
2.0 kg of matured jak bark chips were dried in the laboratory oven at 37 °C until the 
oven dry weight was obtained. Then these chips ww-e ground by using industrial 
grinding machine and sieved to get finely ground particles (355 J.lm). 1.0 kg of the 
powder was added to 4 1 of water and boiled while stirring for one hour. This was 
followed by an addition of another 4 I to the same container to get maximum 
extraction of dye particles (MLR used was I :8J. Then extracted dye solution was 
filtered out by using a vacuum filtration unit. 
5.0 g of fabric pretreated with extract of Bomboo (Symplocos spicata) bark was dyed 
in a bath containing 30 gil Sodium chloride salt and 250 ml of the extracted dye 
solution at 80 °C for 30 min. 
The dye bath was prepared with jak wood bark chips. Prepared dye solution was put in 
to the "Pandu Oruwa" (Small pot having a shape of a boat - Figure 3.1 a,b). The 
folded robe was turned side by side to ensure uniform absorptivity of dye. It was kept 
for few days (2-3 days) until the robe gets the optimum dye absorption.The robe was 
then washed, rinsed and the excess water squeezed out and dried. 
62 
3.1.3 Selection of dye yielding bio-matcrials for natural dye extraction 
Comprehensive literature survey was carried out to investigate the natural dye 
producing plants in the world and those which are indigenous to Sri Lanka. Initial 
selection of plants from the overall list of bio materials was carried out. After a 
comprehensive literature survey, about 90 natural dye giving plants were identified. 
Studies \Vere done to evaluate sources of natural dyes available in South Asia 
.ncluding Sri Lanka (Taylor, 1986; Melt. 1929; Munidasa. 1988: Tilakasiri. 1994 ). 
tarting with more than 50 different plant parts v.hich could be used as raw materials 
for dyestuff extraction. a selection v.as performed with regard to the follov. ing 
requirements: 
(a) Production of the plant material in sufficient amounts with .fuodern agricultural 
methods including simple extraction methods to obtain the dyestuffs. 
(b) Formation of suitable classes of dyes which arc, in their applicability, comparable 
to the classes of synthetic dyes in use at the present. 
Plant raw materials which go as waste but still contained dye materials in relatively 
large quantity were selected. Some new natural dyeing methods were selected which 
are ecologically friendly and developed with less health hazards for a selected plant 
material to investigate its suitability as a textile dye.' 
3.2 Dyeing tests and quality criteria 
fhe applicability of plant dyes for industrial purposes makes high demands on the 
quality of the product. especially with respect to the transportability and shelf life of 
the dyestuff as well as to the standardisation of high quality dyestuff and the 
reproducibility of the dyeing results. 
In order to establish a resource-efficient and economically viable product line, mainly 
residual material from the food and wood-working industry were used as resources. 
lhc dye stuff product was assessed according to the following criteria: 
(a) Availability of raw material at the lowest costs possible, 
(b) Possibility of making ready - to -dye concentrates, 
(c) Transportability and shelf life, in order to guarantee supra-regional supply, 
(d) Manageability at operational leveL 
63 
(e) Material is ready to compost without further treatment and can be used for 
other purposes. 
(f) Usc of watery plant- extracts is possible, usc of solvent and chemicals is not 
intended. 
(g) Good fastness of the dyed product. 
(h) Applicability to the dyeing of protein fibre (wool). cellulose fibre (linen. 
cotton) and 
(i) 0) estuiT which does not need mordant is preferred, if mordant is necessary, 
copper and aluminium mordant or bio mordant to be used. 
Sri Lanka is at an advantageous position since the country holds a ric=h resen oir of 
-
natural raw materials. Different parts (leaves. bark, seed, tlower~1roots and woods 
etc.,) of a considerable number of plants have been reported to yield dyes. however a 
large number of them are hitherto unexplored. The number of possible plant sources 
was reduced by rigorous selection considering the main aspects given in Table 3.1. A 
general overview of the dyestuff production and dyeing step is given in Figure 3.2. 
These form the basis for analysis. 
Table 3.1 The main requirements for a basic set of natural dyes 
Agricultural demands Requirements defined by a technical dye house 
"' Reasonable Requirements for 1 Simple and rapid dyeing process, no intermediate 
Production and harvesting of the drying steps. 
plant materials 
Cas} handling and storage of the ~ One-bath dyei,ng 
raw materials 
High dyestuff content 
Easy extraction with water 
Broad range of shades formed by a basic set of 
brilliant dyes, including dark shades (black) 
Applicability in dyeing machines in use today 
Easy correction of deviations in colour depth and 
shade, Acceptable fastness properties 
Observance of existing waste water limits. 
No use of mordants based upon Cu, Sn. or Cr salts 
Bio-degradability of dyes in wastewater treatments 
Consumption of eco friendly chemicals 
64 
(e) Material is ready to compost without further treatment and can be used for 
other purposes. 
(f) Use of watery plant- extracts is possible. usc of solvent and chemicals is not 
intended. 
(g) Good fastness of the dyed product, 
(h) Applicability to the dyeing of protein fibre (\vool). cellulose fibre (linen. 
cotton) and 
(i) Dyestuff which does not need mordant is preferred. if mordant is necessar). 
copper and aluminium mordant or bio mordant to be used. 
Sri Lanka is at an advantageous position since the country holds a ric:h resen oir of 
. 
natural raw materials. Different parts (leaves, bark. seed. f1ower~1toots and woods 
etc .. ) of a considerable number of plants have been reported to yield dyes, however a 
large number of them are hitherto unexplored. The number of possible plant sources 
was reduced by rigorous selection considering the main aspects given in Table 3.1. A 
general overview of the dyestuff production and dyeing step is given in Figure 3.2. 
These form the basis for analysis. 
Table 3.1 The main requirements for a basic set of natural dyes 
Agricultural demands Requirements defined by a technical dye house 
... 
Reasonable Requirements for I Simple and rapid dyeing process, no intermediate 
Production and harvesting of the drying steps. 
plant materials 
Eas) handling and storage of the l One-bath dyei.ng 
ra\v materials 
lligh dyestuff content 
Easy extraction with water 
Broad range of shades formed by a basic set of 
brilliant dyes, including dark shades (black) 
Applicability in dyeing machines in use today 
Easy correction of deviations in colour depth and 
shade, Acceptable fastness properties 
Observance of existing waste water limits. 
o usc of mordants based upon Cu, Sn, or Cr salts 
Bio-degradability of dyes in wastewater treatments 
j 1 Consumption of eco friendly chemicals 
64 
Agricultural products of plant material 
Hot water extraction 
Dyeing Process 
Dyed product 
Easy to harvest and handle 
Simple storage 
No chemicals added 
No organic solvents 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
...... 
Residual plant material for further use as animal 
feed or soil conditioner 
Aqueous dye stuff solution / 
(Formation of a deliverable solid or liquid product) 
One bath dyeing 
Technical requirements 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
...... 
Wastewater containing minimum chemical load 
(Released to wastewater treatment plant) 
... 
Broad range of shades 
Acceptable fastness properties 
Figure 3.2 Dyestuff extraction and dyeing step. 
3.3 Selection of fabric materials to be dyed 
lhe characterization of fabric was carried out at Physical Testing Laboratories of the 
Department of Textiles and Clothing Technology, University of Moratuwa. Sri Lanka. 
3.3.1 Macroscopic features: 
Molecular structures. length. cross section were determined by using laboratory 
microscope (Make: AJA Y OPTK, Model: CM/L - 90 I 0250. India). 
3.3.2 Physical properties: 
I enacit) (glden). Stretch and elasticit) were measured by using Universal Testing 
\1achine (Make: lnstron. Model : 4465. USA) 
65 
'v1oisture Regain - The fabric samples were conditioned in the standard atmosphere of 
65% Relative Humidity and 27 ± 2 °C for lour hours until the oven dry mass was 
obtained. Moisture regain was calculated using following equation. 
\\here, MR 
IM 
ODM -
MR=JM-ODM 
ODM 
Moisture Regain 
Initial Mass at standard atmosphere 
Oven Dry Mass 
Specific gravity of fabrics and yarns was calculated by using a hydro/e{er. 
3.4 Preparation of cloth for dyeing (fabric pre- treatment) 
(a) Cotton fabrics 
(3-1) 
Grey cloth, as it comes from the loom stage, is unattractive and contains natural as 
well as added impurities, which hinders the successful operation of dyeing by 
reducing the absorption capacity of the fabric, hence it is necessary to make the fabric 
water absorbent, by making the fabric free from any natural as well as added 
tmpurities in order to achieve a successful dyeing process. 
Preparation of the cotton cloth was carried out by using the following steps. 
• Desizing 
• Scouring 
• Bleaching 
• Mercerisation 
Desizing: 
Gray cotton cloth was impregnated in 5 % Genencore GC 2X desizing agent with 10 
%alkaline (NaOH) solution at 80 °C for one hour with material to liquor ratio of I: 
SO. Desizing was done at pH 6.5 - 8.0 for 1 hr. 
Scouring: 
Scouring was done to remove natural and added oil and waxes present in the desized 
fabric. The desized fabric was treated with 4 % Sodium hydroxide and 0.5 % 
detergent solution at 95 oc for I hour with material to liquor ratio of 1: 50. 
66 
Bleaching: 
The scoured fabric was treated with 35 % Hydrogen peroxide solution at 90 °C for I 
hr keeping the material to liquor ratio at I :50 to remove natural colouring matter. 
~1ercerisation: 
Oesi7ed, scoured. bleached fabric was subjected to mercerization at low temperature 
under tension. 20 % NaOH , 52 sec. under tension at 20 °C. 
5 g samples of each prepared fabric pieces were dyed individually with 47 selected 
extracts of bio-materials. 
1 b) Silk fabrics 
.he munga silk of 45.0 g/m2 fabric was scoured with solution cont~ining 0.5 g/1 
sodium carbonate and 2.0 g/1 non-ionic detergent (Labolcnc) solution at 40 - 45 oc for 
30 min, keeping the material to liquor ratio at I: 50. The scoured material was 
thoroughly washed with tap water and dried at room temperature. The dried scoured 
material was then soaked in clean water for 30 min prior to dyeing or mordanting. 
Degumming was carried out by treating 5.0 g sample of silk with saturated hot soap 
solution at pH I 0-12 for 45 min to remove natural gum present in silk. 
((.)Wool yams 
rhe cleaned wool yam of 60.0 g sample was scoured \\ rih solution containing 2.0 g/1 
non-ionic detergent (Labolene) solution at 30-35 °C for 30 min. keeping the material 
to liquor ratio at 1 :50. The scoured material was thorough!) washed with tap water 
and dried at room temperature. The scoured material \\as soaked in clean water for 30 
min prior to dyeing or mordanting. 
Silk and wool were directly premordanted with metal salts; no tannic acid treatment is 
required for these fibres. 
3.5 Extraction of colour yielding parts from the bio-materials 
Following sequence of processes was followed to obtain colour yielding parts from 
the bio- materials. 
(a) Drying 
(b) Grinding 
(c) Sieving 
(d) Extraction 
(c) Filtration 
67 
3.5.1 Drying 
Figure 3.3 Laboratory drying oven 
~ost of the plant materials were dried in a laboratory oven (Make: SDL Atlas , Model 
DP6l, UK) at 37 °C until all the moisture was evaporated from the bio-material and 
a constant mass was obtained (Oven Dry Mass). 
3.5.2 Grinding I 
Figure 3.4 Industrial grinding Machine 
... 
Dried materials were powdered to fine particles to obtain maximum extraction of 
colouring material from the bio-matcrials. This was carried out in industrial type 
grinding machine with 6000 rpm. (Make: Hauser, Model: S45-400, UK). 
3.5.3 Sieving 
Figure 3.5 Sieve analyser 
Ground raw materials were subjected to sieve analyser (Make: Cilas, Model: 1190, UK) 
to obtain fine sand of uniform particle size (355 f..lm) of the raw materials. 
68 
3.6 Extraction of colourants: 
rhe dye yielding components of the bio materials were extracted by the following 
three methodologies: 
(a) Aqueous extraction 
(b) Solvent extraction 
(c) Sonicator extraction 
3.6.1 Aqueous extraction 
Raw materials (2.0 kg) were subjected to grinding and sieving. Ground and sieved raw 
materials (1.0 kg) were soaked over night. The MLR (Material to Liquor Ratio) of 
extraction bath was 1:8. For 1.0 kg of raw material initially 4 I of distill~:water was 
added and plants parts were boiled. After about 1 hr another 4 I ofwat~ was added to 
the same extraction to ensure maximum extraction of dye yielding parts from the raw 
material. Extraction was carried out until the volume of bath reduced to 1 1 for 2 hrs. 
After that it was left to cool down. This can be considered as concentrated natural dye 
and was used for dyeing of fabric samples. Figure 3.6 shows the extracted dye 
solution of R. cordifolia (Walmadata). 
Table 3.2 Experimental liquor volumes 
Wt. of raw material Liquor volume Final liquor volume 
(kg) (ml) {Concentrated) (ml) 
1 4000 + 4000 1000 : 
Figure 3.6 Aqueous extraction ofR. cordifolia (Walmadata) 
This aqueous extraction procedure was repeated for all the selected 47 natural dye 
giving bio-materials. 
69 
3.6.2 Solvent extraction 
Sometimes colourants, present in natural sources, did not get extracted into the 
aqueous medium. In such a case, soxhlct was used to extract the natural colourant in 
the organic solvents. Mainly, the solvent used was methanol. 
• • , 0 • 
tlil .A 1 ° 
.. I • ,. t : ~-.• 1. ~ •. ~I ! . ... It-.. ~·, Jh'"·J'. Jt ' ~ l · -~ ' -:.f:.!· . ¢.,, .·~ l .,~r. ~- ~':;:~ F - , ... J '• . . 
• ~i-'W :} f . •• i ' . •· j 
..;;;__. .. -~ -· f I 
Figure 3.7 Solvent extraction unit 
Colouring matters were extracted by using solvent extraction method. Bio-materials 
were cut into pieces, dried and were refluxed in soxhlet with methanol till it 
discharged the colour. The extraction process was carried out for 4-6 hours. This 
method was used for extraction of colouring matter from the finally selected ten 
samples. 
3.6.3 Sonicator extraction 
... 
Figure 3.8 Sonicator 
The extraction of colouring matter from bio-materials was carried out by using the 
sonicator. 1 OOg of finel y ground raw material was added to the sonicator bath. The 
sonicator used was of20 kHz frequency and 150 W, (Make: Julabo, Model: 30, India). 
When the bath is irradiated with high energy, ultrasonic cavitation occurs which 
releases considerable amount of energy due to collapsing of the bubbles. This 
70 
mcreases with the surface tension at the bubble interface and decreases with the 
vapour pressure of the liquid. Since the aqueous extraction bath has water, which has 
comparatively high surface tension, it is a very effective medium for extraction of 
maximum amount of colouring part. 
3.7 Filtration 
/ 
Figure 3.9 Vacuum fi ltration unit 
The insoluble residue was separated by sedimentation and filtration through a stainless 
steel filter fabric (0.3 mm mesh). The extracted dye samples were cooled down and 
were subjected to filtration to get rid of fine solid particles to prevent deposition on 
the fabrics. The filtration was carried out by using a vacuum filtration unit (Make: 
Millipore, Model: HA WP04700, Thai wan). The resulting extract was used for the 
dyeing of fabrics. 
... 
3.8 Mordanting 
Three basic methods of mordanting are in vogue on yarns I fabrics. The use of 
dtfferent mordants changes the colour of a dyestuff and enhances the colour stability. 
Dyeing would depend upon the type of mordanting nsed. The three methods used for 
mordanting are: 
(a) Pre-mordanting: 
The cotton fabric was treated with 4 % (ow f) solution of tannic acid prepared in water. 
The fabric was dipped in tannic acid solution for at least 4-5 hours and covered to 
avoid patchy stains on the fabric, squeezed and dried. In this method the yam/fabric 
was mordanted in the first stage and then dyed in the second stage. An aqueous 
solution was prepared by dissolving required amount of suitable mordant in water. 
The yam/fabric was entered and boiled for 30 to 45 min in the mordanted solution. 
The yam/fabric was dyed in the prepared dye bath. 
71 
(b) Simultaneous Mordanting: 
In this method the mordant and the dye were applied simultaneously in the same bath. 
fhe yarn/fabric was dipped in the extracted dye liquor and boiled for 15 min. The 
required amount of mordant was added to the extracted dye solution and stirred we11 
and boiled for 30 to 45 min. Then the fabric was washed, rinsed and dried. 
(c) Post-mordanting: 
In this method the fabric was first dyed and then mordanted. The dye solution \\aS 
prepared. The yam/fabric was dyed in the dye solution. The aqueous solution was 
prepared by adding 5% of suitable mordant. The dyed material in the mordanting 
liquor was boiled for 30 to 45 min. 
3.8.1 Selection of mordants j 
rwo types of mordants were used to enhance the performance properties of dyed 
materials. 
3.8.2 Synthetic mordants 
Synthetic mordants are chemical substances which fulfill the above purposes. Some 
synthetic mordants were selected to use with plant colourant extracts arc Ferrous 
sulphate. Potassium dichromate etc,. 
3.8.3 Natural mordants ... 
These are natural substances which give abo\'e mentioned properties. The natural 
mordants used were Aralu (Terminalia chebula) and Sepalika (i\):ctanthes arbor-
tristis). 
3.9 Dyeing under different conditions 
During the dyestuff selection, a one-bath dyeing process with the addition of the 
mordant into the dye bath was investigated to serve as the general dyeing procedure 
instead of a two-bath dyeing step with separated mordanting. The selection of a one-
bath dyeing procedure was made with regard to the demands of the textile dyers. who 
would reject a two bath dyeing process with the arguments of handling, time 
consumption, and risks of lower reproducibility. The possibi lity for a variation in 
colour depth and shade with use of dyestuff mixtures and mixed mordants was found. 
Initially extracted colourants were used to dye mercerized cotton fabric at 40 °C. 60 
0C. and 80 °C. From above temperatures the best performing temperature was 
72 
selected. Then the salt concentrations were varied. (i.e.l 0.0 g/1 ,20.0 g/1 ,30.0 g/1). 
From these salt concentrations best possible salt concentration was selected based on 
the better dye uptake and fastness properties. With the optimization of above 
parameters, pH of the individual dye baths was varied. i.e. pH <7. pH =7. pH >7. pll 
or these dye baths were measured by using a pi l metre (Make : Hanna: Model : HI 
8314. Portugal). pH of the aqueous dye baths were determined by directly inserting 
pH meter into the dye bath while for methanolic extracted dye baths . the methanol 
\\JS evaporated and extracted dye was dissolved in water. pH was measured in this 
aqueous solution. By using the above optimum conditions. samples were generated for 
all ( 4 7) selected bio-materials. The temperatures. salt concentrations and pH 
conditions followed are illustrated in the Figure 3.10. 
100 
90 
u 80 
0 
~ 70 
a.. 60 
= 
- 50 ~ a.. 40 ~ 
Q. 30 e 
<:J 20 
f- 10 
0 
0 
I 
Biomaterial 
60°C 
4 
~ 
. 
Figure 3.10 Selection of optimum conditions for dyeing 
Addition of dye 
20 40 
Addition of mordant 
60 80 
Time (min) 
~60°C shing ~~ 
100 120 
Figure 3. 11 Temperature time diagram for dyeing process 
73 
140 
The dyeing was performed on cellulosic material by the exhaustion method using a 
MLR of 1 :20 (For 1.0 g of fabrics/yam 20 ml of I iquor) with cellulosic material. 
Bleached wool yam (10.0 g) was used as a protein fiber substrate with M.L.R. 1:20 at 
50 °C for one hour. The dyeing trials were performed in a sample dyeing machine 
according to the temperature time diagram given in Figure 3.11. 
3.10 Techniques used for dyeing 
Two techniques of dyeing were used to compare the shades of dyed fabrics or yams. 
(a) Conventional dyeing 
(b) Sonicator dyeing. 
• I 
3.10.1 Conventional dyeing 
Conventional dyeing of substrates were carried out at 95 °C for one hour in the sample 
dyeing machine (Make: Colour Pet 12, Model: 12 LMP, Japan) in the laboratories of 
the Department of Textile and Clothing Technology, University of Moratuwa, Sri 
Lanka. 
Figure 3.12 Conventional dyeing in sample dyeing machine 
3.1 0.2 Sonicator dyeing 
Sonicator dyeing was carried out in the facility for Ecological and Analytical (FEAT) 
laboratories in Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India. The same equipment 
(Make SR05: Model: Julabo, India) used for extraction was used for dyeing. 
In sonicator dyeing 250 ml of extracted dye was added at the beginning to the dye 
bath. In all the dyeing processes, tap water was used. In sonicator dyeing, extracted 
dye was taken into sonicator bath and the treated fabric was dipped in for one hour at 
74 
40 °C. Dyed fabric was dipped in 4% sodium chloride solution for one hour and then 
fabric was washed with tap water and dried. 
3. 11 Evaluation of performance properties 
Evaluation of performance was carried out in accordance with the standard methods. 
Evaluation of fastness properties was done by measuring washing, light, rubbing and 
perspiration fastness values using Wash wheel, Microscal. Crock meter and 
Perspirometer respectively. The dyed samples were tested according to standard test 
methods as given in the Table 3.3. 
Table 3.3 Standard reference numbers for fastness testing 
Test parameter 
Colour fastness to Washing 
Colour fastness to Light 
~olour fastness to Rubbing 
I Colour fastness to Perspiration 
Standard rcfereny'number 
ISO - 05 - CO 1 05 
ISO- 105- B02 
ISO- 105 -XI2 
---
ISO- 105- E04 
All the testing of the fastness properties of the dyed fabrics were carried out at the wet 
Processing laboratory of the Department ofTcxtilc and Clothing Technology. University 
of ~oratuwa. 
... 
3.11.1 Colour fastness to washing 
~ or colour fastness to washing. ISO I 05 C 0 I 05, wash fastness ratings from I (fading) 
to 5 (excellent fastness) were used (Table 3.4). 
3.11.2 Colour fastness to rubbing 
This test method assesses the resistance of the colour of textile materials to rubbing 
off in the dry state or in the presence of moisture or solvent. Such rubbing of colour 
may result in fading or streaking, and/or staining of other materials. 
For colour fastness to rubbing, ISO 105 X 12, rub fastness ratings from 1 (fading) to 5 
75 
' 
Table 3.4 Wash fastness (Wf) and Rub fastness (RF) ratings 
Rating No. 
2 
3 
4 
5 
3.11.3 Colour fastness to light 
Description 
severely fading 
Poor fastness 
Medium fastness 
good fastness 
Excellent fastness 
for colour fastness to light. ISO -I 05 - B 02, a Microscal to measure resistance to 
fading using a laboratory apparatus (Microscal; James II. Heal, UK) WFtS'used under 
the following conditions: light-exposure system featuring an air-c!oled Microscal 
discharge lamp simulating outdoor global radiation; irradiation on sample level /. 300 
400 and 400-700 nm; test chamber temperature: 25 oe; and relative humidi ty 65 %. A 
light fastness rating from I (severely fading) to 8 (excellent fastness) was made by 
comparing the resistance to fading of each sample to that of eight different blue tones. 
Table 3.5 Light fastness (LF) ratings 
Rating No. Description 
Sc\crcly fading 
2 Fading 
3 Medium fastne~~ 
4 Quite good fastness 
s Good fastness 
6 V cry good fastness 
7 Exceptional fastness 
8 Exec I lent fastness 
3.11.4 Colour fastness to perspiration 
lhis assessment specifies a method for determining the resistance of the colour of 
textiles of all kinds and in all forms to the action of human perspiration. The fastness 
of colour 'vvhen subjected to perspiration is a constant problem for manufacturers of 
clothing. To evaluate this phenomena colour fastness to perspiration, ISO I 05 E04 
was used. Perspiration fastness ratings from l (fading) to 5 (excellent fastness) were 
used. similar to \Vash fastness ratings and rub fastness ratings given in the Table 3.4. 
76 
~ 
3.12 Equipment used for performance analysis 
Evaluation of fastness properties was done by measuring washing, light, rubbing and 
perspiration fastness values using following equipment given in the Table 3.6. 
Table 3.6 Equipment used for performance evaluation 
Test parameter 
Colour fastness 
to Washing 
Colour fastness 
to Rubbing 
Colour fastness 
to Light 
Colour fastness 
to Perspiration 
Equipment 
Wash wheel 
Crockmeter 
Microscal 
Perspirometcr 
Trace elements and I Atomic 
Heavy metals Absorption 
Unit 
3.13 Measurements and analysis 
3.13.1 Colour measurements 
Pictorial view I Manuf. 
James 
H. Heal , 
UK 
James 
H. Heal, 
UK 
James 
H. Heal, 
UK 
James 
H. Heal, 
... 
Uk 
Perkin 
Elmer 
Make Model 
Year of Man f. 
Thermo lab, UK 
(2001) 
Ravindra 
Eng.,India 
(2003) 
Microscal,UK 
(2000) 
Sashmira ,UK 
(1989) 
Perkin 
Elmer, 
USA (2004) 
The relative colour strength of dyed fabrics expressed as KIS was measured by the 
light reflectance technique using the Kubelka- Munk equation (3.2). The mathematical 
basis fo r all colour matching software is the Kubelka- Munk series of equations. These 
equations state that for opaque samples such as textile materials, the ratio of total light 
absorbed and scattered by a mixture of dyes is equal to the sum of the ratios of light 
absorbed and scattered by the dyes measured separately. The reflectance of dyed 
fabrics was measured on a Premier Colourscan. 
77 
where R 
K 
s 
K = (1-R) 2 
s 2R 
Decimal fraction of the reflectance of dyed fabric. 
Absorption of characteristic of light 
Scattering characteristic of 1 ight 
3.13.2 Evaluation of parameters related to colour matching system 
The reflectance of dyed fabrics was measured on a Premier Colourscan. 
(3-2) 
C.LE. is for "Commission lntemationale de I'Eclairage ", which in English is the 
"International Commission on Illumination". The C.l.E. system is used for colour 
specification. It describes all the colours visible to the human eye. 
> 
C I E. 1931 Chroma11cl1y O~agram 
;I 
.9~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~-----r~--~~~ 
8 
.7 
.6 
5 
.4 
3 
.2 
0 
.0 
.. 
.1 2 3 4 
X 
/ 
~"( ~~ 
"-~~.,· 
5 
., ... 
. ,
I 
1 
6 
Figure 3.13 CIE Lab colour coordinate system 
.7 .8 
L * represents lightness value, the higher the lightness value represent lower the colour 
yteld. a* and b* represent the tone of the colour, positive values of a* and b* represent 
redder and yellower tones while negative shows greener and bluer tones. C* 
represents chroma or purity of colour. h represent hue (shade) of colour. 
78 
The ClE Lab values were also recorded for all dyed samples along with controlled 
sample. 
The CJE Lab values of the dyeings were measured with a tristimulus colourimeter. 
The colours are given in CIE lab coordinates, L * corresponding to the brightness (1 00 
=white, 0 =black), a* to the red- green coordinate (positive sign =red, negative sign 
: green) and b* to the yellow-blue coordinate (positive sign =yellow, negative sign 
=blue). 
3.13.3 Measurement of dye exhaustion 
The mixtures of extracted dye were subjected to characterization throu:gh various 
-
techniques. The UV spectra for any dye extract give the typical absor_Jahce values of 
the colourant which is specific. The extracted dye was diluted and dissolved in a 
suitable solvent system (water) and scanned through UV-Visible spectrophotometer. 
Absorbance measurements were done to identify characteristic of spectra. 
3.14 Equipment used for analysis 
Table 3.7 gives details of analytical cquipmcnts used for measurements and analysis. 
Table 3.7 Equipment used in the performance analysis of dyed materials 
Characterisation of extracted dye 1 UV - Visible 
Spectroscopy (200 1) 
(Make : Perkin Elmer : 
Model 295 spectrophotometer 
USA) 
Colour Measurements I Premier Colour Scan (1999) 
3.15 Economic consideration 
(Make :Perkin Elmer, 
Model : SS6200A, India) 
Ten selected plants were subjected to evaluate the economic feasibility of these 
natural dyes. Standard depth calculations enabled in determining required quantities 
for standard depth of shades. 
79 
Standard Depth Calculations were carried out according to the American Association 
of Textile Chemists and Colorists AA TCC Evaluation Procedure 4 (Standard Depth 
Scales for Depth Determination). 
l ~ing the maximum dye yielding parameters. mercerized cotton samples were dyed 
with aqueous extraction of natural dyes until the standard depth shades were obtained. 
Finall) the amount and cost of dye material needed to achieve standard depth was 
calculated. 
3.16 Preparation of Ready- to - Dye Concentrates 
rhe extracted colour yielding parts of the bio-materials were used for this purpose. ~ 
fhe extracts obtained from section 3.6.1 were taken as Ready - to -IJ-e Concentrates 
(R I DC) Extract. Methyl paraban and Sodium benzoate were added to these dye 
solutions as preservatives. The efficiency of their chemicals as RTDC extract 
preservatives were also tested as shelf life observations. 
3.17 Market potential in Sri Lanka 
Apart from the examination of the technical and economic feasibility of the use of 
plant dyes in the textile industry; in the course of the project. market research was 
conducted in order to be able to give marketing recommendations. According to the 
... 
findings of the survey. naturally dyed textiles should not be advertised by using the 
term "eco-textiles·· because consumers associate negative emotions with this term 
(e.g. bagg) clothes). Furthermore. they tend to assume that the textiles are not wash-
and lightfast and have a limited sample board. Jlo·wever. successful communication 
~trategies stress the exclusiveness, skin compatibility and naturalness of the product. 
Similar prejudices with regard to natural dyes can be found on the side of the dyeing 
industry as well. The entrepreneurs doubt that the use of natural dyes is possible in 
industrial plants. They argue that plant dyes are not reproducible and that good 
fastnesses and appealing colours arc only achievable by the application of poisonous 
mordant. 
A questionnaire (Annexure A) was prepared to evaluate the market potential of 
products from natural dyeing industry in Sri Lanka. 
80 
3.17.1 Analysis of questionnaire 
l'hc questionnaire was used with participants to several natural dye exhibitions and 
workshops. Following exhibitions which were held in Sri Lanka during the last couple 
ofycars were visited and comments and observations recorded. 
(a) Art gallery Exhibition in Sri Lanka (year 2004) 
{b) Art Gallery exhibition (year 2005) 
(b) Exhibition at BMTCH (Year 2005) 
(c) Exhibition at BYfiCH (Year 2006) 
(d) Exhibition at BMICH (Year 2007) 
3.18 Evaluation of environmental impact 
I 
It is important to evaluate the natural dyes according to the environmental 
performance. Environmental Impact of the extracted natural dyes and the dyed fabric 
was assessed by testing for toxic heavy metals or trace elements. 
Significance of environmental impacts was determined by analyzing for trace 
elements and heavy metals present in selected natural dye yielding plants. These data 
were analysed using Atomic Absorption Unit in the Atomic Energy Authority of Sri 
Lanka. 
... 
Toxic heavy metals content in the dye and the dyed fabric were determined by using 
Inductively Couple Plasma Optical Emission Spectrophotometer (TCP). For analysis. 
1000 ppm solution 0.1 g sample digested in cone. Hydrochloric acid and made up to 
I 00 ml by adding distilled water was used. The upper I imits of trace elements detected 
w·erc 10.0 mg/1. 
3.19 A colour catalogue 
Results from the entire basic study were collected on to a resource compendium. 
fhe dyed results could be observed in the CD compilation attached to the thesis as 
supplementary material. 
81 
1 
C h a p t e r  F o u r  
R E S U L T S  A N D  D I S C U S S I O N  
4 . l l n d i g e n o u s  d y e s  a n d  d y e i n g  m e t h o d s  
A f t e r  c a r r y i n g  o u t  t h e  c o m p r e h e n s i v e  l i t e r a t u r e  s u r v e y  o n  r e s o u r c e s ,  f o l l o w i n g  r e s u l t s  
w e r e  o b t a i n e d  i n  r e l a t i o n  t o  t h e  a v a i l a b i l i t y  o f  n a t u r a l  d y e  s o u r c e s  i n  S r i  L a n k a  ( F i g u r e  
4 . 1 ) .  
o  ¥ J  t r . J u  
0  c v  € ' J r 1 •  
,  
(  
l  
F i g u r e  4 . 1  A v a i l a b i l i t y  o f  N a t u r a l  d y e  s o u r c e s - R e g i o n a l  D i s t r i b u t i o n  
8 2  
4.1.1 Traditional robe dyeing process 
Figure 4.2 shows the developed (according to the scientific conditions) process flow 
diagram for traditional robe dyeing process. 
Room temp. Room temp. 
Robe Washing Boiling Straining Cooling (100 °C) 
t i 
Bomboo (Symplocos Mature Jak roots 
cochinchinensis) 
Drying Soaking Air Drying 
Spaking in ! 
, water Dyed 
-J 
Robe 
Boiled !xtract of 
... 
4 times 
Sepalika 
Figure 4.2 Developed process flow diagram for traditional robe dyeing 
It was observed that the traditional technique continues to date. The objective of this part 
of the study was to study the shortcomings of the use of traditional dyeing techniques. 
Observed short comings in the traditional method were: 
(a) Fabric pre-treatment was not carried out for better absorptivity of dyes. 
(b) Dye bath concentration was not uniform 
(c) Materials to liquor ratios were not properly selected. 
(d) No definite quantity of salt addition. 
(e) All the raw materials used were according to the traditional knowledge 
and practice. No up to date knowledge was applied. 
(f) Adequate after treatments were not carried out. 
(g) No quality control other than perceptive acceptance. 
(1) (2) (3) 
Figure 4.3 Traditional robe dyed fabric samples in the laboratory 
iithout Bamboo & Nuga (Ficus bengha/ensis), (2) With Bomboo & without Nuga, (3) With Nuga & without Bomboo 
83 
Above samples illustrate the shades given by the traditional method of robe dyeing 
carried out in the laboratory to compare the results with modern scientific conditions. 
!'his investigation was done to modify the traditional robe dyeing method with the 
scientific methods. 
4.2 Investigation of dye yielding bio-materials for natural dye extraction 
About 90 dye yielding plants in Sri Lanka were found as a result of literature survc: 
(Annexure B). From these 90 plants. 47 bio-materials were selected for dyeing trials. 
I aborator} trials were carried out on these samples to determine the suitabilit:> of these 
bio-materials for commercial applications. 
A colour catalogue consisting of the above 47 samples are prepared a~-a supplementary 
material given in the CD. After investigation of all 47 bio-matcriafs for possibility of 
dyeing an evaluation matrix was prepared. 
Selected Bio-materials, and their parts used for colouring matter extraction, the 
evaluation matrix for selection of best dye giving bio-matcrials and criteria for evaluation 
matrix arc presented in the Table 4.7. 
4.3 Selection of fabric material to be dyed 
For the screening of -l7 natural dye yielding plants, tnercerized cotton fabric samples 
from the local industry were used in the laboratories of University of Moratuwa. Three 
t) pes of fabric materials were used with the ten best selected bio-materials in the testing 
laboratories of Indian Institute of Technology. Kanpur. India. The selected fabric 
chacterisations are as follows: 
4.3.1 Characteristics of cotton fabric 
Physical parameters and properties of cotton fabric selected for dyeing is presented in 
Table 4.1. 
Table 4. t Characteristics of cotton fabric 
Parameter Prope rties 
Molecular Structure Cellulose 
Mac roscopic features 
Length 0.3 to 5.5 em ~ 
Cross Section Kidne-r shaped 
Physical properties 
~Tcnacit; (gr/dcn) 3.0-5.0 (dry), 3.6-6.0 (\\et) 
Stretch and clasticit) 3-7 % elongation at break 
Moisture Regain 8.5% 
Specific Gravity 1.54 
84 
4.3.2 Characteristics of silk fabric 
Physical characteristics of silk fabrics arc presented below. 
Table 4.2 Characteristics of silk fabric 
Parameter 
Molecular Structure 
Macroscopic features 
Length 
Cross Section 
Physical properties 
J PIHll'itv {of/den) 
elasticit} 
Moisture Regam 
Specific Gravit" 
4.3.3 Characteristics of wool yarn 
Properties 
Extended Protein (fibroin) 
400 to 700 m 
Triangular cross section 
2.4 to5.1 
15 % elongation at break.. 90 % 
reco\ el) at 2 % elongation 
. . ... ~ I I % 
1.25 
I 
Physical characteristics of wool yarn are presented below. 
Table 4.3 Characteristics of wool yarn 
Parameter Prooerties 
Molecular Structure llclical Protein (Keratin) 
Macroscopic features 
Length 2 to 50 
I 
I 
Cross Section 1--Jii tic 
em 
al --------------------~ 
Physical properties 
Tenacit} (gf/den) I to 2 
Stretch and elasticit) 35 % c 
rCCO\C I Moisture Regain 
Specific Gra~ity 
13.6 tc 
1.30 
-'A Extraction of colourants from the bio-materials 
... 
on gat ion at break. I 00 % 
I) at 2 %elongation 
16% 
.32 
, 
For the maximum extraction of dye yielding matter from the bio-matcrials several steps 
were followed. 
4.4.1 Grinding & Sieving 
Different sizes of mesh were selected to get fine particles from the ground ra\v materials 
to ensure uniform extraction. Sieve analysis data for 25 samples out of 4 7 (\\>hich can be 
dried and ground) are attached in Annexure C. 
85 
Table 4.4 Sieve analysis data for N. lappacium sample 
Mesh size Retained wt. Cumulative wt. % Cumulative wt. 
355 50 50 2.5 
250 200 250 12.5 
150 700 950 47.5 
0 1050 2000 100 
4.5 Extraction of colourants 
I 
Figure 4.4 Finely ground particles and their aqueous extracts 
All 47 selected samples were subjected to aqueous extraction. 47 different extracted 
solutions were realized. Figure 4.4 presents a collection of few extracted solutions from 
47 colour extracts. 
... 
Both conventional dyeing and sonicator dyeing of aqueous extracts were carried out to 
compare the best dye yielding conditions. 
451 1 
40 
35 
-
"* ~lJ 
~25 
;::) 
~20 
0 15 
10 
5 
0 
- Mlngold Koth:ilo -~~ Bog Ollon Aek Mingus TtJ w.lnod>l• Tur!TinO 
Natural b1o Mateuals 
Figure 4.5 Dye uptake for bio-materials by different dyeing methods 
86 
Table 4.5 D k for diffi d . hn" 
%dye %dye o;o 
Local name Botanical name uptake in uptake in improvement 
conventional sonicator in dyeing 
dyeing dyeing 
Rambutan N. lappaceum 20 31 55 
Marigold T erecta 27.5 37.5 36 
Kothala S. reticulate 29.5 35 17 
Weniwelgata C. .fenes tratum 20 31 55 
Big onion A. cepa 17 25 47 
Jak A. heterophyllus 22 30 36 
Mangus G. mangostana 24 35 37.5 
Tea C. sinensis 23 40 74 
Walmadata R. cordi{olia 26 37 : 42 . 
Turmeric C. domestica valet 26 44 
, 
69 < 
From the above graph it can be concluded that about 47 % of average improvement of 
dyeing can be achieved by sonicator dyeing. 
4.6 Optimization of dyeing conditions 
To obtain the maximum absorptivity of dyes by fabrics, dyeing parameters should be 
optimized. The important dyeing parameters considered in this study are; temperature of 
the dye bath, salt concentration, time taken and pH of the dye bath. As the initial 
assessment optimum dyeing temperature at 80 °C was selected. At this optimum 
... 
temperature, i.e. by keeping the temperature constant at 80 °C, the optimum salt 
concentration was given as 20.0 gil. By keeping above all two parameters constant 
optimum pH was selected. It showed pH < 7 was the suitable range. The sequence of 
optimum conditions obtained was illustrated in the Figure 4.6. 
Bio mate1ia 
Figure 4.6 Dyeing conditions 
87 
4.7 Mordanting 
Oy using two types of natural mordants Aralu (Terminalia chehula) & Sepalika 
f~):ctanthus arbo-tristis) and one synthetic mordants (Copper sulphate) all 47 samples 
were dyed with simultaneous and post mordanting methods. The Colour catalogue 
prepared with different conditions presented in the CD as a supplementary material. A 
colour catalogue is presented in this manner to save space as well as for facilitating data 
comparisons later. 
4.8 Evaluation of fastness proper ties 
r astness properties are \'er) important. Fastness properties of all dyed fabric samples 
were tested against colour fastness to Washing, Rubbing, Perspiration 'l"d Light. Results 
are tabulated in evaluation matrix (Table 4.6). I 
4.9 Selection of dye yielding plants 
initial experiments were carried out on 4 7 types of bio-materials. However, it is important 
to concentrate on a few selected bio-materials and prioritize from this list. An evaluation 
matrix was developed and used for prioritizing. The matrix was formed under five areas. 
Evaluation matrix was generated to select the best bio-materials. The generated matrix is 
shown in Table 4.6. 
... 
Ta ble 4.6 Characteristics of selected natural dyes in Sri Lanka 
Ra" \ lateria l I Proce.,~ I Fiution I \ppliration 1 En\ ironmr nlltl .. \~pert~ 
-
,---
'J 
~ "' -; 
Rotanical I Part I ~· ... 1::: . <.> = = "' c "" /. :: c: CIJ .g ~ 0 "' <> ::; l'sed ..;J .., e <> 0::: -; c: .E => ·;:: u 0 a E names .D 
.... u E <:; :r <0 :.c e !) ~ c: .., <> 'Z 
"' ~ t... !>II u "" 0 0 ... 0 > i= V" Q. ~ .D 0. 
., __ 
.!!:.~ <> E .r; :::1 - ~ ]C.. ;;, ./' o,J "' 
c 
.> ~ Jl 0:: "' <> 'J 
"' "' 
Q. 
__J 
< "" 
"' 
E ?; :."-l 
- ::: <:>. ., 
- ~ 
Root 10 10 10 4 4 3 3 5 9 8 8 8 10 7 9 10 0 I 
Stem 8 8 7 4 4 3 3 5 7 6 6 3 8 5 4 9 0 2 
·- --
Stem 10 10 10 -1 4 3 3 5 9 8 7 4 10 8 9 10 0 I 
mfet Rh):.Omc 10 10 10 -1 4 3 3 5 9 8 5 9 10 10 10 <) 0 2 
ri!/ICU{a/a Bark 10 10 10 ~ 4 3 3 5 9 7 7 7 10 7 8 10 I o I 2 
l'wuca Fru1t I 8 I 8 I 8 I -1 I 4 I J I 3 I 5 I 8 I 6 I 7 I 6 I 8 I 7 I 8 I 8 I o I R granatum Skm 
Ratb llandun I l'temcarpus 
\till/ a lmu v Stem I 9 I <) I 10 I 4 I -1 I 3 I 3 I 5 I 10 I 7 I 6 I 6 I 10 I 7 I 7 I 9 . o I :! 
Rana\\ara I Ca\SICI 
auncufuta ,' flm1er-. 7 l -1 1 ~ 131315161615 5 I 9 I -1 I 3 I 9 I o I I 
\ralu I T~~I~II~ICiflll Bar!. 9 I -1 I 4 I 3 I 3 I 5 I 9 I 7 I 7 I 7 9 I 5 I 6 I 9 I o I I 
88 
I eo: 0 !-
11 9 
92 
-
11 5 
I 21 
I I 16 
I J(f(l 
I Ill 
I !19 
I 1110 
Ratu l..aha 
{emunalw 
I e~(.'/es erecta 
~/llumcepa 
I ll11tm rub nun 
1/thJScus rosa-
.\lflf!fiSIS 
("arne/Ita 
\'JIIei'ISIS 
Cluona 
rernarea 
, f II 111m pornun 
Bar!. 
stern 
Sa'' Dw,t 
I ru1t 
<;kin 
Fruu 
Sl.in 
Fruit 
Sl.in 
Petals 
Sl.m 
Sl.m 
FIO\\Crs 
ll>ed 
I. cave~ 
Ho\\cr~ 
Leave~ 
( "offoa arab tea I Leaves 
Coffea arabtca I I .caves 
Co{(ea Arab1ca 
<-,,roma•Jdellca 
mer II/IS 
l.awsoma 
1nertntJ 
()mbopogon 
curores 
Htxa Orellana 
Seed~ 
R1ppcd 
I Ca\CS 
Stem& 
bar!. 
Stem 
Stem 
Stem 
Stem 
Bar!. 
Lea,es 
Leaves 
Leaves 
Leaves 
St.:m 
Lea\es 
Lea\es 
Leave> 
St.:m and 
bark 
~ru1t 
S.:.:d coat 
9 9 
8 8 
10 10 
10 10 
10 10 
10 10 
10 10 
10 10 
10 10 
10 10 
10 10 
8 9 
8 2 
8 2 
8 9 
8 9 
9 9 
2 
7 Q 
3 8 
3 8 
2 8 
5 6 
8 
2 3 
7 9 
7 3 
2 
2 
9 
2 3 
2 3 
2 5 
2 () 
I able 4.6 Contd . . 
9 44335 9 645 9 6 5 9 I 0 100 
8 cJ4 JJ5 l! 654 8 3 6 9 I o 'IJ 
-
10 4 -l 3 3 5 10 9 9 9 10 9 9 10 I 0 10 13-l 
10 4 4 3 3 5 10 9 9 9 10 9 9 10 I o Ill IJ.1 
10 4 I -1 3 3 5 10 9 9 9 10 9 9 10 I o I() 13-t 
10 -1 ·I .1 3 5 10 8 8 8 10 9 9 10 I o I() IJI 
10 4 -l 3 3 5 10 8 7 8 10 8 8 10 I o 10 12X 
f-- . 
10 4 4 3 3 5 10 9 9 9 10 9 9 10 I o 10 I .H 
7 4 4 ·' 3 5 7 8 8 8 10 8 7 10 I o Ill 1:!:! 
2 t 4 3 J 5 1 2 3 3 -2: 3 2 () 10 ox 
, 
10 4 4 3 3 5 10 9 9 I 10 9 9 10 I o Ill IJI 
t-1-
8 4433501220 3 2 6 I o 9 69 
3 44335 0 32 1 0 3 5 I o R 55 
2 44335 2 432 0 3 4 l! 0 7 64 
9 44335 7 323 6 3 8 I o 7 KIJ 
---
9 4-1335 8 645 8 4 6 7 0 0 91 
9 44335 6 566 8 7 7 8 I o 9 lOX 
I 443.,511110 6 I o () 35 
.... 
Q 4433 501110 7 I o (I 56 
Q 44335 8 666 9 5 6 l! 0 '1-l 
9 44335 8 545 9 6 7 8 I o 92 
9 44335 6 432 9 6 7 8 I o 9 92 
6 44335 5 232 6 4 5 7 I 0 6 76 
9 44335 3 453 7 6 7 6 I o 79 
4 44335 I 212 6 2 7 0 8 ~K 
9 44335 5 324 8 3 2 7 0 79 
2 44335 2 32 11 3 7 0 52 
2 44335 2 1 23 3 2 3 7 () .JK 
214335 3 864 2 4 6 7 () 0 64 
9 ·t 4 3 3 5 8 8 6 4 87- 8 7 7 I 0 (I 9-l 
4 4 4 3 3 5 3 2 3 2 5 '.1~ "';;~ 7 0 5 58 
'-'•Y_/, ~~ 4 4 4 3 3 5 5 2 3 2 5 3 ~~ \ $ 0 ;.,;r;, .,? 58 
"'""" ! !•" 
8 4 4 3 3 5 6 3 2 3 6 ' ~ !55 ~\J) !ill~ 0 7-1 
~ ·- ..... 
9 4 4 3 3 5 9 5 6 7 9 8 8 il-7 () 
•. "'r"'": ~ 
'19 
...... _J U":;,.;; J 
89 
I able 4.6 Contd. 
1/emidesmus 13m!.. and 3 I s I 4 I I I 2 I 4 I 7 I 3 I 2 I 7 I o I I I 69 lllriiCIIS stern 
Lugema llusk I 10 I 8 I 8 I 4 I 4 I 3 I 3 I 5 I 9 I 8 I 3 I 4 I 5 I J I 5 I 8 I o I 10 I 100 hracreara 
\yctanthes 
1 Fl011ers 10 10 10 ·1 4 3 3 5 7 6 6 5 9 9 9 7 o 1 10 1 111 
arhor-tristiS 
I 
seed 10 6 6 4 4 3 3 5 8 7 6 4 8 8 5 7 ()I 10 I IIW 
NIA 10 9 9 4 4 3 3 5 9 8 7 5 7 8 9 8 0 
Mu11a 10 8 8 4 4 3 3 5 9 7 7 7 8 7 8 8 0 
A ark 6 7 6 4 4 3 3 5 7 6 7 6 8 7 8 7 0 
Root 6 7 6 4 4 3 3 5 7 6 7 6 8 7 8 7 0 
Mtlk 5 8 8 4 4 3 3 5 5 6 7 -1 9 8 9 7 () 
13ark 10 Ill 10 4 4 I :~ 3 s I 1 6 5 4 . :8 I 1 I 8 I 7 I o I 
4.10 Evaluation matrix and tested samples in the laboratory 
Following parameters were selected for the evaluation of dye yielding plants having 
the most potential characteristics as a colouring matter for textile substrates. The scale 
used is 1-10. 
(a) Raw material 
In the case of raw material selection the foliO\\ ing aspects were considered 
Availability 
... 
Plant materials for dye extraction should be frequently available m 
sufficient quantities. After carrying out a market survey conclusions 
were drawn. Eg. If it is readily available and a waste material rating 
given are I 0. If it is a medicinal plant. rating given is less than this 
rating. 
Ease of Extraction The extraction procedure should also be easy and convenient and 
Yield 
supportive in scaling up. If by simple water extraction it is not 
possible the rating given is in between 1-5. If the extraction can be 
done by simple extraction methods rating 8-10 is given. 
The yield obtained from the extraction should be high. Such high 
yields results in realizing the quantity through a smaller resource 
base. Therefore if dark colours are obtained the rating given is in 
bet,..veen 8-1 0. If the colour of extraction bath obtained is pale the 
rating given is in between l-5. 
90 
6 I 114 
:! 108 
5 I)<) 
5 w 
-
I 96 
2 I 10.'\ 
(b) Process requirements 
Temperature There should be an optimum extraction temperature. If it is at alow 
temperature, rating given is in between 6-10. If it is at elevated 
temperatures rating given is 1-5. 
Time 
Salt 
pll 
MLR 
(c) Fixation 
Ease of extraction means lower processing time. If the lower processing 
time is required rating given is 8-10. If the processing time is 
considerabl} high rating given is 1-5. 
Minimum amount of salt concentration should be used. If it is a 
low amount. rating given is in bet\veen 8-10. If the considerable amount 
of salt is used, rating falls in betweenl-5. 
pH should be adjusted to the optimum extraction conditions. For some 
plants better extraction can be taken under acidic' medium v.hile for 
other plants the medium can be alkaline or neutral. In that case rating 
depends on the conditions applied. 
Material to liquor ratios should also be in optimum range. If dyeing can 
be done with low liquor ratios (5-20), that condition is better and hence a 
higher rating is given.i.e. 8-10. If high liquor ratios (50-100) are used. a 
low rating is given i.e. 1-5. 
... 
If the dye fixation is in the acceptable range, foiiO\ving ratings should be achieved in 
relation to quality of fabrics. 
\\ash Fastness Fastness to washing should be in between 4-4/5. For these. rating is I 0. 
Rubbing Fastness to rubbing should be in' between 4-4/5.For these. rating is I 0. 
Light Fastness to light should be more than 5. For these, rating is I 0. 
Perspiration Fastness to perspiration should be in between 4-4/5. For these, rating is I 0. 
(d) Application 
Ease of application 
Levelness 
Shade 
If it is easy to apply on to the fabrics and absorption is optimum, 
higher rating is given i.e. 8-10. If the application of dyes is 
complicated rating given is at low range. i.e. from 1-5. 
If the levelness is satisfactory rating given was 8-10 poor levelness 
is obtained rating given is less. i.e. 1-5. 
If brighter shades are obtained the rating given is 8-10. If pale 
91 
shades are obtained, the rating given is 1-5 depending on the 
appearance. 
(c) Environmental aspects 
Three aspects were considered under environmental consideration. They are Chemical 
Oxygen Demand (COD). Presence of heavy metals and the source of raw materials. 
Chemical Oxygen Demand 
Presence of heavy metals 
':iource of raw material 
(Waste or non waste) 
If COD is less high ratings are given. If COD is higher a 
lower rating is given 
If low content of heavy metals are present. high ratings are 
given: if the heavy metal content is high a rating is lo\\. 
If the raw material is a waste materiaL hrgh rating is given 
i.e. in between 8-l 0. If it is a non - taste material rating 
given is lower i.e .. 1-5. 
When selecting dye yielding bio-materials for dyeing of textile substrates waste materials 
were considered to be more useful. For example Jak sawdust. Rumbutan skin. Mangus 
skin. Marigold flowers. Tea waste etc. 
4.11 List of the plant materials selected 
Above mentioned parameters were evaluated by inserting data into an evaluation matrix . 
... 
Prioritization was given only to ten (I 0) bio-materials for further studies. These ten bio-
materials \\ere subjected to the same experimental studies but in greater detail in a 
repetitive manner. 
Table 4.7 Selected bio- marerials for detailed studies 
Local name Part used Botanical name Total score 
Big Onion Skin Allium cepa 134 
Jak Saw dust Artocwpus heterophyllus 134 
Kothala Himbutu Bark Salacia reticulate 116 
Mangustene Fruit skin Garcinia mangos/ana 134 
Marygold (Orange ) Petals Tegetus erecta 128 
Rambutan (Yellow) Fruit skin Nephelium lappaceum 134 
Tea Used leaves Camellia sinensis 134 
Turmeric Rhysome Curcuma domestica valet 121 
1 Venival Stem Coscinium fenes/ralum 115 
l Walmadata Root and stem Ruhia cordifo/ia 119 
92 
4.12 Detailed analysis of ten selected resource streams 
The following observations were made from the investigations on screening, extraction 
and characterization of dye yielding bio-materials in detail. For the selection of ten best 
possible dye yielding bio materials all 47 samples were subjected to aqueous extraction. 
·\fter selecting these ten bio-materials, methanolic extraction was used to get better dye 
) ield for further investigation. 
(a) Optimisation of dyeing and extraction parameters 
In the case of aqueous extraction optimum conditions were obtained by trial and error 
methods. The optimum parameters for d)'eing for all the ten samples arc as follows unless 
stated otherwise. 
Dye extraction Temperature 100 oc 
I 
Dye extraction Time I h 
pH of the extract 4-9 
Dyeing Time 1 h 
Dyeing Temperature 80 °C 
Mordanting Time I h 
\1aterial to Liquor Ratio I: 50 
(b) Colour measurements: K/S was measured for cohon, silk fabrics and wool yams b) 
using Premier Colourscan. KJS values 's. '"a' elcngth graphs show change in K/S value 
for different mordants for a particular fabric. Also the scanned graphs are given for 400 
700 nm range of wavelengths and as far as the Y axis is concerned it may not be 
. 
depicting the actual value and just to keep in scale (These graphs and corosponding K/S 
\alues generate and display on the computer screen for particular fabrics). The 
corresponding tables (for cotton, silk and wool) illustrate only A. max values (wavelength at 
which the absorbance is maximum) attained in a parti cular wavelength. 
4.12.1 Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) 
Botanical Name 
Family 
Common ~ames English 
Source 
Availability 
Nephelium lappaceum 
Sapindacea 
Rambutan 
Dried skins were collected from home gardens and 
fruit sellers 
May- August 
93 
a b 
Figure 4.7 a, bRawN. lappaceum fruit and dried pericarps 
(a) Characterization 
e-o...-
21S 
:uo 
226 
'JOO 
C' • ,.. 
';'tiO 
~ c , ,.,. 
~ 
€ '100 
0 
en o:P'I 
i 060 
OM 
000 
I 
2.60nm 
I 355nm / 
. . 
200 2a> lCCt :WO 400 ... toO NO 800 .:.0 7'00 1510 100 
Wavelength (nm) 
Figure 4.8 UV-Vis spectrum of mcthanolic extract of N lappaceum 
Visible spectrum of N. lappaceum extract: The rnethanolic extract from N. lappaceum 
shows peak at 260 run and 355 nm in the above diagram. 
UVNis absorption is not, however, a specific test for any given mixture of extracts. The 
nature of the solvent, the pH of the solution, temperature, high electrolyte concentrations, 
and the presence of interfering substances can influence the absorption spectra of the 
mixture, as can variations in slit width (effective band width) in the spectrophotometer. 
(b) Colour measurements : K/S values for cotton, silk fabrics and wool yams are 
shown in Figures 4.9- 4.11 and CIELab values are shown in Tables 4.8- 4.10. 
94 
'20 
18 
14 
--eonrcl 
-- Tar1111t at:1d 
a- A~m 
·- Copper s!Jphil(e 
-- Ferrous sulphite 
• :3 
"§ --Pclass•tm diCITom<iite 
<1'1 
:i:: 
10 
8 
6 
e~ ~ ~i~ ~ 0 .n ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 
W;,.v ele ngth (nm) 
- Stamous chloride 
- - Stamc chloride 
~ ~ if ~ 
Figure 4.9 Change in KJS values with different mordants for coj}dn fabrics 
after dyeing with methanolic extract of N lappaceum. 
Table 4.8 Characteristics for cotton fabrics dyed with methanolic extract of Nlappaceum 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 50.265 8.79 26.61 28.02 71.68 55.66 
Control + Tan. acid 50.314 9.76 27.01 28.72 70.09 68.21 
Alum 51.800 8.44 29.56 30.74 74.03 62.42 
Copper sulphate 50.306 7.29 26.87 27.84 74.78 89.98 
Pre-mordanting 
Ferrous sulphate 43.126 1.44 7.30 7.44 78.82 170.11 
Pot. Dichromate 50.887 7.28 27.82 28.76 75.30 83.44 
Stannous chloride 52.850 10.64 31.68 33.42 71.41 52.01 
Stannic chloride 53.694 11.80 33.33 35.36 70.46 68.81 
By considering the above graphs the sequence of order of KJS values are Fe > Cu > K > 
AI > Sn (II) > Sn (IV) in cotton for N. lappaceum, and results show the absorption of 
colour by cotton fabric was enhanced when using metal mordants. For cotton fabrics best 
mordant is Ferrous sulphate having a maximum KJS value of 170.1 I. 
95 
! 
1 
VI 
:.: 
6 
4 
:1 ..... . ~:::::::S,,t.,, ..... . 
~ ~ ! ~ ~ ~ ~ & § ·~ § ~ ~ i § ~ 
W.lVtlength (11m) 
--control 
--~m 
... c QA)el .SUij)hal~ 
- ferrous sulpha~ 
- POI*S.SIU.rt dch.'OIII•t'1 
-... .Stamous ctllonoe 
- Stannic cti!Oride 
Figure 4.10 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fabrics ~fter dyeing 
with methanolic extract of N lappaceum. J 
Table 4.9 Characteristics for silk fabrics dyed with methanolic extract of N lappaceum 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 60.097 6.24 30.61 31.24 78.44 32.96 
Alum 59.769 4.38 29.52 29.85 81.51 45.26 
Pre- Copper sulphate 59.629 5.68 30.25 30.78 79.32 59.51 
mordanting Ferrous sulohate 50.203 l.28 4.03 4.23 72.32 197.44 
Pot. dichromate 59.250 5.83 29.17 29.74 78.65 59.35 
Stannous chloride 60.046 6.47 30.40 31.08 77.93 39.88 ! 
Stannic chloride 60.978 8.94 3~.90 34.10 74.77 48.19 i 
From the above graphs the order of KJS values is as following: Fe > Cu > K > Sn 
(IV)> Al > Sn (II) in silk for metanolic extract of N /appaceum, and can be concluded 
the absorption of colour by silk fabric was enhan~ed when using metal mordants. The 
optimum K/S value for this combination is 197.44. 
~ 
~ 
en 
:.: 
45 
40 
3$ 
30 
25 
20 
1 s 
10 
5 
0 
8 
.. 
~ ~ St R 
... .. ... .. ~ ~ ~ ~ B ~ B ~ § § ~ 
W.wele nqth (nm ) 
--con1ro1 
-- AlUm 
.. Coppeo' sulphtile 
-f'erro.nM.Il~ 
--Pot-.- -<NftC'1 
--Stannous ct11onde 
- Stannic Ct11onde 
Figure 4.11 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yarns after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of N. lappaceum 
96 
Table 4.10 Characteristics for wool yarns dyed with mctanolic extract of N. /appaceum 
-
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 57.567 8.23 32.88 33.89 75.91 43.26 
-
Alum 57.633 8.70 33.03 34.16 75.21 79.39 
Pre- Coooer sulohate 55.814 4.88 29.60 30.00 80.60 133.54 
mordanting Ferrous sulohate 46.34 2.19 5.06 5.52 6658 335.45 
Pot. Dichromate 54.605 5.21 27.83 28.32 79.34 130. 17 
Stannous chloride 56.154 9.91 30.16 31.74 71.78 80.30 
Stannic chloride 58.300 9.51 34.18 35.48 74.43 80.94 
The order of K/S values is: Fe > Cu > K > Sn (IV) > Sn (II) > AI in wool for methanolic 
extract of N. lappaceum. The optimum K/S value 335.45 was obtained when using 
ferrous sulphate as metal mordant for wool yam. 
/ 
It was observed that the pre mordanting technique with metal mordants imparted good 
fastness properties to the cotton, wool and silk fabric. Control samples without mordant 
were also prepared for comparison. 
(c) Fastness properties of dyed fabric 
The fastness properties of dyed fabrics from the methanolic extract of N. lappaceum arc 
as follows: 
Table 4.11 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, Silk fabrics and wool yarns under 
conventional conditions of metal modanting with methanolic extract of.\'. 
lappaceum. 
Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Perac1d1c Pert:a"c Rubdf) Rub"ct LF 
-
Cotton (Control) 3-4 3 f---- 3 3 "' 3-4 ..) 
Cotton (Alum) -4 4 3-4 3-4 3-4 4 
-
Cotton (FeS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Cotton (CuS0 4) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
- -
Wool (Control) 3 3 3 3 "' ..) 3 
- -Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Wool (FeSO.~) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 5 
Wool (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
-
Silk (Control) 3 3 3 "' ..) "' ..) 3 
Si lk (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (FeSO-t) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 ~ Silk (CuS0-1) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
WF ~ wash fastness. LF light fastness. Per Perspiration fastness., Rub - Rubbing fastness. 
97 
From the above results overall fastness properties of N. lappaceum dyed fabrics are in 
acceptable range. Hence this type of dyes can be considered as suitable for dyeing of 
textile substrates. 
The dyeing of cotton fabric with metal mordant by the natural dye N. lappaceum, shows 
that by this process very good results of even dyeing are obtained. The dye uptake in case 
of cotton dyeing ranges from 53-64 %, for silk 55-70% and wool 57-69% with different 
mordants. The effectiveness of metal mordant of N. /appaceum showed better dye uptake 
appears to be an improved process resulting in good dye adherence which results in good 
rastness properties. 
Dye shades given by different fabric samples after dyeing with methanQlic extract of N. 
lappaceum are shown in Figure 4.12. I 
l\ l o..-dant 
Con tr(,i 
\I om 
\ epfu-/iu m L upp Ul'l''"" (Rambuttan) 
Cu ..,u lflh:lh' 
~n 
Chloride( Il l 
~n 
Chlo.-id~·o' ) 
' 
Figure 4. 12 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of N. lappaceum with different 
mordants 
These different colourful shades can be generated by using methanolic extract of N. 
lappaceum to dye textile substrates. For example dark brown was obtained when using 
98 
using Ferrous sulphate as metal mordant for cotton, silk and wool yarns as shown in 
Figure 4.12. 
(d) Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements levels in the dye, and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of 
methanolic extract of N lappaceum and fabric dyed with N. lappaceum extract in mg/1 
are tabulated in Table 4.12. 
Table 4.12 Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements (mgfl) Cu Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni Cr 
~ In the dye (mg/1) ND 0.12 NO 0.03 ND NO ND 0.4 0.14 
Dyed fabric (mgll) 0.02 0.12 NO ND ND NO NO NO NO ;1 
COD of the extract (mgll) 237 -300 
- - ·~ . . -p to IUmgl 
Results indicate that elements of major concern to the environment are absent in the 
dye solution and one can expect an effluent of much less impurities from a textile 
dyeing operation involving N lappaceum extract. 
4.12.2 Marigold (Tegetus erecta) 
a b 
Figure 4.13 a, b Fresh T.erecta and dried petals 
Botanical name - Tegetus erecta 
Family - Astcraceae 
Common name - Marigold 
Source - Cultivated throughout Sri Lanka, from home gardens and from 
flower sellers, From religious places 
99 
i 
(a) Characterization 
Visible spectrum of T. erecta: The yellow coloured methanolic extract of T erecta 
shows peak at 430 run. 
3 .6. 430nm 
ao1 
,--.... ,~ 
" 
~ ! 6 
. 
2.0 !i 
-e 
a 
1 6 .<> 
• 
1.0 / 
0.6 
---------------___ _.. 
00 
450 1500 660 eoo 850 700 750 800 
--- Cyele01 
Wave Length (nm) 
Figure 4.14 UV- Vis spectrum of methanolic extract of Terecta 
(b) Colour measurements: K/S were measured for cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn as 
... 
shown in Figures 4.15 - 4.1 7 and CIE lab values are shown in Tables 4.13 - 4.15. 
3) 
I 
25 ~\ 
~ 20 
~ 15 v. 
:.:: 
10 
5 
0 j I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I! I l i j'ij j~· 
N.wel~nnth (nm) 
-- C•nbol 
-- Tat1ni~ 1 : ~ 
---Aion\ 
--C•pp•r sulpfl ~ l• 
--F ttJous ,suillh.t• 
-- Pot~siwn 4~hroma• 
....._ St.l nnow 'hlorid• 
-- St~llni¢ thlorid• 
Figure 4.15 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of T erecta 
100 
Table 4.13 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of Terecta 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 56062 -0088 44006 44007 72064 --(Without mordant) 
Tannic acid and dye 55097 -2007 42030 42035 2023 74086 
Alum 59.45 5056 51079 52009 10.44 79098 
Pre- Copper sulphate 
mordanting 
52016 6.44 39.43 39095 9.49 131.65 
Stannous chloride 62084 11009 58050 59054 19075 136070 
Ferrous sulphate 41068 2009 15025 15039 32.59 187077 
Pot. Dichromate 52.45 14064 40047 43004 16.47 138084 
Stannic chloride 63056 4001 56087 57001 15036 86001 
¥ 
The order of K/S values is Fe > K > Sn (II) > Cu > Sn (IV) > AI in cotton for methanolic 
extract of T. erecta, the best metal mordant for cotton fabric is ferrous sulphate having 
best K/S value of 187 0 77 0 
~ 
t=S 
;> 
~ 
':r:: 
o30 
25 
'20~, .... 
1S 
10 
s 
0 
8 ~ 
.., .. 
~ g ~ 8 ~ ~ 
~ v ..,. \("> 1/) 'Ill 
~~§~~~ 
1/) "' U) ~ U) 
\\ :w~ len!!th (nm) 
~ ~ 
__._ C0111 rol 
--- /..lum 
-.-Coppet sulphole 
--*-Fe 11'0 ~ $ul ph8l e 
- PotMsium dlct.omse 
- St6MOUs chlori~ 
---St Vlr'lic ehl oride 
Figure 4.16 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract ofT erecta 
\> 
101 
Table 4.14 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract ofT erecta 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 57.35 -3.91 34.70 34.93 -- 52.04 
Alum 64.64 7.38 55.13 55.62 24.45 126.07 
Pre- Copper sulphate 56.38 2.59 37.56 37.65 7.18 72.44 
mordanting 
Stannous chloride 69.06 10.62 63.29 64.18 34.14 132.91 
Ferrous sulphate 45.64 3.77 13.10 13.63 25.74 271.63 
Pot. dichromate 55.23 9.8 1 36.42 37.72 14.00 53.34 
Stannic chloride 64.99 -1.48 48.21 48.23 15.70 54.01 
The best metal mordant for silk fabric is Ferrous sulphate havin/ best K/S value of 
27 1.63. 
w 
'50 
4{1 
• 
-i. 
> 30 
"' ::.:: 
20 
10 
0 
1
1 ' . 
8 ~ ~ 8 2 R ~ 9 R Q R ~ 2 R ? - 8 
• • • • • ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ • ~ ~ ~ v -
\ \ ' "'·• l•nl"h (l'lm) 
--control 
--..AIIA'II 
--Co- s<JI)hete 
- Feorous .wutphele 
- Po!Mtl...,. <'(f>rort~•V• 
--st...,_Chloricfe 
~st.erw>c: d"!IOnde 
Figure 4.17 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yam after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of T erecta 
Table 4.15 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed with methanolic extract ofT erecta 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H KIS 
Control 52.14 -2.00 43.34 43.38 -- 132.50 
Alum 58.03 10.80 60.83 61.78 22.47 84.88 
Copper sulphate 37.18 2.03 23.82 23.90 24.92 167.08 
Pre- Stannous chloride 59.31 12.80 65.44 66.68 27.55 102.12 
mordanting 
Ferrous sulphate 32.85 2.45 13.46 13.68 35.84 256.54 
Pot. dichromate 36.90 5.55 22.96 23.62 26.54 181.18 
Stannic chloride 67.98 13.50 80.56 81.69 43.33 234.06 
102 
The order of K/S values is: Fe > Sn (IV)> Sn (ll) > /\1 > K > Cu in wool for T erecta. 
rhe absorption of colour by wool yarn was enhanced v.hen using Ferrous sulphate as the 
metal mordant. Fe (I I) provides best chelation having optimum K/S value of256.54. 
It was observed that the pre mordanting technique with metal mordants imparted good 
fastness properties to the cotton. wool and silk fabric. Control samples without mordant 
were also prepared for comparison. 
(c) Fastness properties of dyed fabrics 
Fastness properties of metal mordanted samples for the comentional dyeing conditions 
arc shO\\n in Table 4.16. 
Table 4.1 6 Fastness properties of dyed cotton. si lk fabrics & wool yam under 
conventional dyeing of different metal mordanting wit/ methanolie extract 
of Terecta . 
.----
Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Perac1d1c Perhasic Rubdr. Rub\\ct LF 
Cotton (Without mordant) 2-3 2 2 2-3 2-3 2 
Cotton (Alum) 4 4 3-4 3-4 3-4 4 
Cotton (FeS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Cotton (CuS04) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (Control) 2 2 2-3 2-3 2 2 
r--- -
Silk (Alum) 4 4 4 ... 4 4 4 
Silk (FeS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 
---;--Silk (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
-
Wool (Control) 3-4 3-4 3 3 " 3-4 .) 
r---Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Wool (FeS04) 5 4-5 < 4-5 4-5 4-5 5 
-
-
Wool (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
--
--
WI wash fastness. LF =light fastness. Per Perspiration fastness. Rub Rubbing fastness. 
The colourimetric data obtained from dyed fabrics and yam which had been pre treated 
with tannic acid/metal ions mordants in the case of cotton and only metal mordants in the 
cases of silk and wool reveal that pre treatment markedly improved the wash fastness. in 
terms of change of shade of the dyed fabrics with respect to controlled samples. It also 
increased the colour strength and flattened the shade of the dyeing. The two stage dyeing 
of cotton fabric'' ith metal mordant by the natural dye Terecta shows that by this process 
very good results of even dyeing are obtained. Most of the natural dye extract have poor 
aflinity for cotton fibers. but their fastness is enhanced by metal mordants. which fom1s 
an insoluble complex. 
103 
lagNtH , .,.,.,.," ( \larit.:ulcl) 
'\lt:u'dunll 
( unh•,t 
, ...... 
C. u ...,.u'IJ•hllh" 
Fe- ~ulph~tc 
1::."t~ t)kh ro •n 
"" ( ' hl .. <id•<t " ' 
'A 
< IIJow Wt.-i l q u uc, sv~ 
/ 
Figure 4.18 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract ofT erecta with different 
mordants 
Above colourful samples show the possibility of producing fascinating colours from 
Terecta flowers to textile substrates. 
(d) Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements levels in the dye, and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of methanolic 
extract of T erecta and fabric dyed with T erecta extract in mg/1 are tabulated in Table 
... 
4.17. 
Table 4.17 Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements (mg/1) Cu Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni Cr 
In the dye (mg/1) NO 0.12 NO 0.03 NO NO NO 0.4 0.14 
Dyed fabric (mgll) 0.02 0.12 NO NO ND NO NO NO NO 
COD of the extract (mg/1) 200 -210 
NO Not Detected up to 1 Omg/1. 
Results indicate that elements of major concern to the environment are absent in the dye 
solution and one can expect an effluent of much less impurities from dye operation 
involving T erecta. The effluent COD value is below that of the recommended value of 
CEA for discharge standards applicable to inland surface water. 
" 
104 
4.12.3 Kothala Himbutu (Salacia reticulata) 
a b 
Figure 4.19 a, b Leaves of S. reticula/a and bark 
Botanical name : Salacia reticulata 
Family : Hipocrataceae 
I 
Common name : Koranti 
Key applications : Antidiabetic 
Sources : Medicinal retai lers 
Part used : Stem and root extracts 
(a) Characterization 
Visible spectrum of S. reticulata: The mcthanolic extract from S. reticulata shows peaks 
at 210 run and 280 run. 
~ 
:. 
-e 
0 
• 
.0 
< 
_J10nm 
3 .5 r \ 
3.0 \ \ 
\ 
~u \ 
1.5 
1.0 
05 
\ 
\___;aonm 
~--.......__ -- -
-·-
·-------· 
oo~----------------------------------------------------
200 250 300 350 400 450 
WaveLength (nm) 
Figure 4.20 UY-Yis spectrum ofmethanolic extract of S. reticulata 
105 
(b) Colour measurements: 
KJS were measured for cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn as shown in Figures 4.21-
4.23 and CIE lab values arc shown in Tables 4.18 - 4.20. 
" - Cot:trol 
5 ·~ ~ 
,1- T.nnc acij 
- Ill \.1 m 
- eoppe_r ~te 
~ ~ - F enou:$ ~.te 
'€ 
- Pcb:5~U'ft dlt ~ 
) 
~ 
S t.nflO!...IS ,c h1o ride 
X - S.t.,nt c:rMndlt 
~ a ,~ § ~ ;f 0 +-----~----~--~~--~~----~--------
W.weltngth (nm) 
Figure 4.21 Change in KJS values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with mcthanolic extract of S. reticulata 
Table 4.18 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of S. 
reticufata 
... 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H 
Control 64.034 9.011 10.80 14.07 50.15 
Tannic acid +Dye 66.026 7.181 15.86 17.41 65.61 
Alum 65.005 7.579 13.54 15.51 60.73 
Pre- Copper sui phate 65.825 5.204 15.88 16.71 71.83 
mordanting Stannous chloride 66.117 8.446 17.02 19.00 63.58 
Ferrous sulphate 63.766 3.525 9.23 9.88 69.07 
Pot. Dichromate 66.101 5.580 16.72 17.63 71.52 
Stannic chloride 66.588 10.117 18.02 20.67 '60.67 
KJS 
14.15 
33.04 
22.12 
26.25 
20.61 
39.66 
39.77 
28.10 
The order of K/S values is: K > Fe > Sn (IV) > Cu > AI > Sn (II) in cotton fo r 
methanolic extract of S. reticulata, the absorption of colour by cotton fabric was 
enhanced when using Potasium dichromate as metal mordant with optimum K/S value 
of39.77 with corresponding CEI Lab values. 
106 
~ 
~ 
~ 
10 
H \( 
--control 
_._ Alum 
Copper sulphate 
6 
5 
4 
3 
X - Ferrous sulphate 
"--r-,...,.__ --Potassium dichromate 
· ........._~ --Stannous chloride 
~~- -+-- Stannic chloride 
'~ 
2 
·---...._ 
0 1~.~~ ·~:-.·:· .· .·~ .~. 
8 ~ ~ ~ g 
• • v ~ v 
0 0 g ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ ~ 0 0 0 8 ~ ~ $ ~ w ~ $ ~ ~ 
W<Nelength (nm) 
Figure 4.22 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fabri~s:after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of S. reticulata / 
Table 4.19 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of S. reticulata 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 65.600 5.132 11.12 12.25 65.21 12.86 
Alum 66.888 4.904 15.07 15.84 71.95 22.16 
Pre-
Copper sulohate 66.315 4.63 13.40 14.18 70.89 23.23 
mordanting Stannous chloride 67.179 5.257 16.03 16.87 71.81 16.21 
Ferrous sulphate 64.832 2.172 7.97 8.26 74.74 81.93 
Pot. dichromate 65.307 2.250 9.65 9.91 76.84 16.87 
Stannic chloride 67.439 7.254 l(i.95 18.44 66.80 19.12 
The order of K/S values is : Fe > Cu > AI > Sn (IV) > Sn (II) > K in silk for S. retict.t!ata 
, the absorption of colour by silk fabric was enhanced when using ferrous sulphate as 
metal mordants with optimum K/S value of 81.93 and corresponding CEI Lab values. 
25 
20 
~ IS 
} 
•(/) 
·~ 10 
s 
0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ $ ~ ~ 
Wavelength (nm) 
- c ortrol 
- Alum 
........ Copper :sUphate 
- Ferrous s uphate 
- Potassnm dic htomete 
- S tannous c hlonde 
- s tanrvc chloride 
" 
Figure 4.23 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yams after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of S. reticulata 
107 
Table -t20 Characteristics for wool }am dyed '' ith mcthanolic extract of S. reticula! a 
r-
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 54.971 13.864 7.87 15.94 29.58 25.58 
Alum 56.354 10.622 12.02 16.04 48.53 ~~ 67 I _), I 
Pre- Copper sulpha
te 55.999 6.616 11.72 13.46 60.53 97.67 I 
mordanting Stannous chloride 57.747 11 .470 15.89 19.60 
54.16 25.45 
Ferrous sulphate 55.334 3.836 9.38 10.13 67.73 125.28 
-
Pot. Dichromate 56.586 5.864 12.76 14.05 65.30 49.27 
Stannic chloride 53.730 6.209 2.82 6.81 24.41 28.98 
The order of K/S values is as following: Fe> Cu > K > AI > Sn ( II ) > Sn (IV) in wool for 
methanolic extraction of S. reticu/ata. the absorption of colour by wool ) am ''as 
enhanced when using Ferrous sulphate as metal mordant with opti!Jlt!'m K/S value of 
125.28. l 
lt \\as observed that the pre mordanting technique with metal mordants imparted good 
fastness properties to cotton, wool and silk fabrics. Control samples without mordant 
were also prepared for comparison. 
(c) Fastness properties of dyed fabrics 
rastness properties of dyed samples with mcthanolic extract of S. reticula/a arc shown in 
Table-4.21. 
' 
Table 4.21 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn metal 
mordanting with methanolic extract of S.reticulata 
_Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Per acidic Perbasic Rubdf) Rub\\ct LF 
.. 
Cotton (Alum) 4 4 3-4 3-4 3-4 4 
Silk (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Cotton (FeS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Silk (FeSO.~) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 
Wool (FeS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 5 
Cotton (CuS04) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
1 Silk (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 .. l Wool (CuS04} 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
WF wash fastness. LF = light fastness. Per Perspiration fastness, Rub Rubbing fastness. 
I 
I 
from the above results it can be shown a fastness properties are in the acceptable range. 
Therefore mcthanol ic extract of S. reticu/ata can be used as dye for dyeing of textile 
:>ubstrates. 
108 
.\ol.ui ll prim~idc•' C h:ollwl:a! 
'"''"~ I"''''' ... 1{ Olillfi) 
\It 
..,, 
( hloJfid 
,,,..u, 
~
I 
Figure 4.24 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of S. reticulata with different 
mordants 
A wide range of fascinating colours can be obtained from S. reticulata with different 
mordants to dye textile substrates (e.g. Dark brown colour can be obtained when using 
Ferrous sulphate as a metal mordant). 
(d) Characterization of environmental impact 
... 
Trace elements in the dye and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of methanolic extract of 
S. reticulata and fabric dyed with S. reticulata extract in mgll are tabulated in Table 4.22. 
Table 4.22 Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements (mg/1) Cu Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni Cr 
In the dye (mg/1) ND NO ND 0.03 ND ND ND 0.23 0.13 
Dyed fabric (mg/1) 0.02 NO NO ND ND NO ND NO ND 
COD of the extract (mgll) 175 -260 
ND Not detected up to 10 mg/1 
Results indicate that elements of major concern to the environment are absent in the dye 
solution and one can expect an effluent of much less impurities from a dyeing operation 
involving S. reticulata. 
109 
4.12.4 Weniwelgata (Coscinium Fenestratum) 
a b 
Figure 4.25 a, b C. fenestra tum plant and dried bark 
(a) Characterization 
, 
Visible spectrum of C. f enestratum: The methanolic extrac fr9fn_ C. fenestratum 
.. 
shows peak at 432 run. 
-··"' I 2.75 
2.50 
2.25 
2.00 
1 432 nm 
1.7"' 
< 1.5'_ -
1.25 
L-., 
· .. 
\ 
' 
. 
. 
I 
I 
\ 
I 
. 
t 
\ 
~ 1.00 
i 
; 
D 
... 
~ 075 - ··- .. ~ ·, ' ' ~ : I ~-- ---:-----;---- -- . 000 I 
. 
\ 
' \ 
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 
Wavel ength (nm} 
Figure 4.26 UV-Vis spectrum of methanol ic extract of C. fenestratum 
(b) Colour measurements: K/S were measured for cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn as 
shown in Figures 4.27- 4.29 and CIE lab values are shown in Tables 4.23 - 4.25. 
Il O 
• ::s 
~ 
,. 
12 
10 
8 
--ccnrol 
--Tanrut attd 
.. Alum 
---- CC()pllr su~tlolle 
--FE!fiOUS SUphalt.> 
V) 
~ ·r~ · 1---P ~aSSlum dtcnrormte - s tannous chiOI'tde ~ - - Stannc chlomte 2 --~~~ -. . • ; "" ..., k ~ ··-o . . . .rif', s~el8~8~es~s~es~s 
~ . ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 
W<lv•l•ng!h (nm) 
Figure 4.27 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of C. f enestra tum 
t 
Table 4.23 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of C.fenestratum 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H KIS 
Control 72.64 -0.004 21.97 21.97 90.04 10.19 
Tannic acid +Dve 74.29 -0.49 26.08 26.08 91.13 16.33 
Alum 74.28 -0.46 26.06 26.06 91.06 16.40 
Pre- Copper sulphate 74.01 0.55 25.94 25.94 88.73 81.86 
mordanting Stannous chloride 76.29 0.06 30.50 30.50 89.84 17.18 
Ferrous sulohate 72.14 2.71 20.86 21.04 82.56 34.92 
Pot. dichromate 73.39 0.90 23.91 23.92 87.80 39.23 
Stannic chloride 74.94 0.97 '27.71 27.73 87.95 21.38 
The order of change in KJS values is : Cu > K > Fe > Sn (IV) > Sn (fl ) > AI in cotton for 
C. fenestratum and also the absorption of colour by cotton fabric was enhanced when 
using Copper sulphate as the metal mordant and optimum K/S value given is 81.86 with 
corresponding CIE Lab values. 
• 
;:: 
> 
VI 
X: 
14 
12 
10 
8 
6 
4 
2 I ,~~·~~•.t.•Ji,.,i;; ,~:·'~ Q I I I I I I I I I 
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ & ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 
W,lllelength (nm) 
- ccnro1 
--Alum 
--- Copper 5Upt'late 
-.. Ferrous suphale 
__._ Ptt assun CIIC nrorrete 
---+-- stamous chlonoe 
--starnc chlonde 
~ 
Figur 4.28 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fabrics after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of C. f enesttratum 
I ll 
Table 4.24 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of C. fenestra tum 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H KIS 
Control 62.99 -0.69 48.52 48.53 90.85 51.74 
Alum 65.19 -1.35 52.12 52. 14 9 1.52 56.11 
Pre- Coooer sulohate 62.89 -2.99 48.31 48.31
 93.58 58.74 
mordanting Stannous chloride 62.51 -2.90 47.52 47.61 93.5
2 61 .72 
Ferrous sulphate 57.41 2.97 38.09 39.09 85.60 73.68 
Pot. Dichromate 61.34 0.25 45.73 45.73 89.64 57.40 
Stannic chloride 57.26 -1.95 38.24 38.29 92.96 71.75 
The order of KJS values is : Fe> Cu > K > Al > Sn (II) > Sn (IV) in silk for methanolic 
extract of C. fenestratum, the absorption of colour by silk fabric was enhanced when 
using Ferrous sulphate as the metal mordant with maximum KJS value uf 73.68. Fe (II) 
provides best chelation. 
30 
25 
! 
20 
~ 
> 15 
•'/) 
·i: 
10 
5 ... 
0 
I ~~~::;;!" .. ~~ _._ 
I I I I i I 1 i +7 I ~~­• i ; f I 
8 A i 2 9 ~ A ~ 8 ~ ~ R ~ R Q 8 ~ • • • • ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ 0 6 ~ 
Wttve lengtfi (nm) 
I 
- control 
- .AlUm 
Copper $Yiph•• 
F «rYJU5 .UpNite 
- PotassiiXn dichromate 
- St.ITlOUS chloride 
- su.rnc chlonde 
Figure 4.29 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yarn after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of C. fenestra tum 
Table 4.25 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed with methanolic extract of C. fenestratum 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S I 
Control 56.45 3.87 46.52 46.68 85.21 76.98 I 
Alum 48.77 7.32 33.21 34.01 77.54 137.16 
Pre- Copper sulphate
 47.95 -2.29 30.17 30.26 94.38 81.36 
mordanting Stannous chloride 55.79 4.83 45.34 4
5.60 83.88 84.94 
Ferrous sulphate 57.39 5.46 48.09 48.40 83.47 93.67 
Pot. Dichromate 54.07 4.87 42.61 42.88 83.43 104.88 
Stannic chloride 48.92 8.21 32.90 33.91 75.95 80.56 
112 
The order of K/S values is: AI > K > Cu > Sn (II) Fe> Sn (IV) in wool for methanolic 
extract of C. fenestra/urn. the optimum absorption of colour by wool yarn was enhanced 
\\hen using alum as metal mordant having K/S value of 13 7 .16. 
It was observed that the pre mordanting technique with metal mordants imparted good 
fastness properties to the cotton, wool and silk fabric. Control samples ""ithout mordant 
were also prepared for comparison. Therefore, in pre mordanting technique. the dyed 
fabrics were mordanted with stannic chloride, stannous chloride. ferrous sulphate, copper 
sulphate, potassium dichromate and alum. 
(c) Fastness properties of dyed fabrics 
Fastness properties of dyed fabrics with different metal mordants a(C: shown in Table 
4.26. I 
Table ... 26 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn under 
conventional dyeing with different metal modanting with methanolic 
extract of C. fenestratwn 
Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Per acidic Perba~ic Rubdf) Rub,,ct LF 
Cotton (Control) 2-3 2 2 2-3 2-3 2 
Cotton (/\lum) 4 4 J-4 3-4 3-4 4 
Cotton (FcSO .. ) 4-5 4 tl 4 4 4-5 
Cotton (CuS04) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (Control) 2 2 2-3 2-3 2 2 
Silk (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (Feso .. ) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 
Silk (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Wool (Control) 3-4 3-4 3 3 3 3-4 
Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Wool (FeS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 5 
Wool (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
WF wash fastness. LF light fastness. Per- Perspiration fastness. Rub Rubbing fastness. 
The colorimetric data obtained from dyed fabrics and yarn which had been pre-treated 
\\ith tannic acid/metal mordants in the case of cotton and only metal mordants in the 
cases of silk and wool reveal that pre-treatment markedly improved the wash fastness, in 
terms of change of shade of the dyed fabrics with respect to control samples. It also 
increased the colour strength and flattened the shade of the dyeings. 
113 
,h,ntaut 
t.. ·GRituJ 
'\l•n• 
( -,.-. 11111/IH l•''"'''ruu (Weniwal) 
( U . .,:utf•h.ah.• 
..... 
c h&..-ld<-tlll 
"" ( -.. toTklt"Ct\ t i.-:~;{\?:3£· ... ~.~W~ 
I 
Figure 4.30 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of methanolic extract of C. 
f enestratum with different mordants. 
(d) C haracterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements in the dye and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of methanolic extract o f 
C. fenestratum and fabric dyed with C. f enestra tum extract in mgll are tabulated in Table 
4.27. 
Table 4.27 Ch t f tal · 1mpacr 
Trace elements (mgll) C u Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni Cr 
In the dye (mg/1) ND 0. 12 ND 0.03 ND ND ND 0.06 0.04 
Dyed fabric (mg/1) NO NO ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 
COD of the extract (mg/1) , 145 -260 
ND - Not detected up lo 10 mg/1 
Results indicate that elements of major concern to the environment are absent in the dye 
solution and one can expect an effluent of much less impurities from dye operation 
involving C. fenestra tum extract. 
4.12.5 Big onion (Allium cepa) 
Common name 
Botanical Name 
Family 
Part used 
Source 
Big Onion 
Allium cepa 
Alliaceae 
Dried skin 
Domestic Kitchens, Markets and restaurants. 
114 
" 
a b 
Figure 4.31 a , b A. cepa bulbs and skin 
(a) Characterization 
Ultra - violet visible spectrum of Onion skin extract : The methanofic extract of A. 
cepa shows a peak at 280 nm. 
:u~_ 
<t, 
3.0• 
2.5 . 
g2.0 ,1 
f: u -
c::: 
... 
~ 1.oJ 
Cll 
~ 
u~ 
oo--
~ 226 2SO 
280nm 
-.____./ 
... 
-----=--======== 
21& 300 325 150 S7S *Ill 
Wavelength (nm) 
Figure 4.32 UV-Vis spectrum of methanolic extract of A. cepa 
(b) Colour measurements: K/S were measured for cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn 
as shown in Figures 4.33 - 4.35 and CIE lab values are shown in Tables 4.28- 4.30. 
11 5 
2:. 
~) 
Q> 
:. 1:: <I 
> 
~ 
10 
s 
~ = 0 = 0 ~ 9 0 Q Q § = ~ 0 = 6 ''-J -T cz;. •T• l> • "J ~ .. -.,, ~~· r .-.. '""- \.£• 1•:i;l ~ ~ -f> ~ ~ l • It ' I/'· - • · It • · .... .- '1.4) • '-' 
wave length (nm) 
- C·>nt r,;.l 
-- T ann i( <~·~ ~:1 
- Alum 
- C·:pp~r s ulph.:n.;. 
- Fo:-nc·us Slll r.·h:lt--
_,.__ F •:·tdSSI U111 dt.: r-rav:·n'l.t•l..-
--t-- B ~n nt):US ~c hl<·n d-=-
- ·sonnr·: •: hlon•:l'!' 
Figure 4.33 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabricafter 
dyeing with methanolic extract of A. cepa 
' Table 4.28 Characteristics fo r cotton fabrics dyed with methanolic ~j'tract of 
A.cepa 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 47.08 3.58 25.20 25.45 81.86 69.10 
Control+ Tan 46.948 4.11 24.60 24.94 80.46 78.51 
Alum 50.461 4.16 34.10 34.36 83.00 70.20 
Pre- Copper sulphate 47. 100 2.59 26.60 26.72 84.39 98.66 
Mordanting Ferrous sulphate 42.243 1.90 14.72 14.84 82.59 124.25 
Pot. dichromate 44.315 5.20 20.25 20.91 75.55 78.78 
Stanous chloride 52.703 7.83 39.84 40.60 78.84 92.08 
Stannic chloride 48.406 6.73 3'6.52 31.25 77.52 158.97 
The order of K/S values is Sn (IV) > Fe > Cu > Sn (II) > AI > K in cotton. For the 
absorption of colour by cotton fabric was enhanced when using Stannic chloride as 
metal mordant with optimum K/S value of 158.97 at corresponding CEI Lab values. 
' 
~· 
20 
~ 
"(;! 
> 
1S 
~ 10 
,. 
ii 
C> 
·=- C> C• ''='J -T 
"T -T ..,. 
0 c 
...,. :>:· 
..,. .. 
--~000000•="" i'' ;-r -- . " ".! z ti: fZ 
\\ '""~ l~ue-rh hunl 
- cont rc·l 
--Alum 
--Copp.,.r ,,ulphilt-.-
-- FforK LIS s ulpt,.,t.;. 
- Pc-tassrLI111 d ro: h rc mat .;. 
_.,_ S.t£Ul llOUS ~:hl !•ll d"l? 
_._ swnnr•. < hlond-io 
Figure 4.34 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fabrics after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of A. cepa 
11 6 
Table 4.29 Characteristics for si lk fabrics dyed with mcthanolic extract of 
A.cepa 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 51.93 10.2 26.37 28.28 68.76 53.18 
Tannic Acid + 63.24 4.11 24.60 24.94 80.46 68.51 
Alum 53.82 6.70 53.45 53.87 82.82 130.70 
Pre- Copper sulphate 45.33 5.78 33.54 34.03 80.19 83.35 
\1ordanting Ferrous sulphate 48.57 2. 14 13.09 13.26 80.60 227.11 
Pot. dichromate 64.90 5.52 21.61 22.30 75.62 55.13 
Stanous chloride 61.29 11.3 57.05 58. 16 78.75 136.1 1 
Stannic chloride 48.40 6.73 49.3 1 50.32 78.46 11 6.16 
The order of K/S values is: Fe > Sn (II) > AI > Sn (IV) > Cu > ~ in silk for 
methanolic extract of A.cepa, the absorption of colour by silk fab~ ' was enhanced 
when using Ferrous sulphate as metal mordant with optimum K/S value of 227. 11 
with orresponding CIE Lab values. 
~o 
~.o 
£.0 
~ J ( l 
~ 
(I) 
~ 30 
'20 
10 
0 
Wavelength nun) 
- cvntrol 
- Alum 
._ Cq:ope-r '~t.A~·~to;o 
- F<?rrou;. ~ulphatr;, 
-e-P.:.tassium docrromat~ 
- !C:tannous. c hlond" 
-- Slc~nnic o:hlvo ir.Jv 
Figure 4.35 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yams after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of A. cepa • 
Table 4.30 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed with methanolic extract of A.cepa 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H KIS 
Control 45.523 5.18 26.58 27.08 78.93 91.14 
Control+ Tan 55.056 -1.49 48.98 49.00 91.78 381.20 
Alum 41.634 3.08 23.04 23.24 82.10 161.85 
Pre- Copper sulphate 41.634 3.08 23.04 23.24 82.33 152.03 
Mordanting Ferrous sulphate 37.916 2.92 14.16 14.46 78.29 539.51 
Pot. dichromate 43.699 3.69 26.79 27.04 82.10 161.85 
Stanous chloride 53.842 13.1 49.57 51.29 75.07 277.85 
Stannic chloride 39.132 3.89 16.67 17.12 76.80 96.77 
11 7 
I"hc order of K/S values is: fe > AI > Sn (II) > K > Cu > Sn (TV) in wool for methanol ic 
extract of A.cepu. the absorption of colour by wool yam was enhanced v.hen using 
f·errous sulphate as metal mordant with optimum K/S value of 539.51 with orresponding 
CIE Lab values. 
Effect of mordanting conditions 
It was observed that the pre mordanting technique with metal mordants imparted good 
lastness properties to the cotton. wool and silk fabric. Control samples without mordant 
were also prepared for comparison. 
(c) Fastness properties of dyed fabrics 
fastness properties of dyed cotton. silk fabrics and wool yam under com1entional dyeing 
of metal modanting with methanolic extract of A.cepa are shown in Ta{le 4.31. 
Table 4.31 Fastness properties of dyed cotton. silk fabrics and wool yam under 
conventional conditions of metal modanting with methanolic extract 
of A.cepa 
~ Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Pcractda Perha~ac Rubdr. 1 Rub" ~' LF 
f Cotton (Control) 3-4 3 3 3 3 3-4 
Cotton (Alum) 4 4 3-4 3-4 3-4 4 -
Cotton (FeS04} 4-5 4 4 ~ 4 4-5 l Cotton (CuS04) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Wool (Control} 3 3 3 3 3 3 
Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Wool (FeS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 5 
Wool (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Silk (Control} 3 3 .., 3 3 3 .} 
-
Silk (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 l1lit= (FcS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 
, Silk {CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
WF = wash fastness. LF = light fastness , Per - Perspiration fastness, Rub - Rubbing fastness 
rhe colourimetric data obtained from dyed fabrics and yam which had been pre-treated 
\\ ith tannic acid/metal mordants in the case of cotton and only metal mordants in the 
cases of silk and wool reveal that pre-treatment markedly improved the wash fastness. in 
terms or change of shade of the dyed fabrics with respect to controlled samp1es. It also 
increased the colour strength and flattened the shade of the dyeings. lti! ·r.s!. 
.trt 
118 
UNIVGIGITY Of l.IOffATUWA SRI lANKA 
MORATUWA 
controlled samples. It also increased the colour strength and flattened the shade of 
the dyeings. 
Hlium ,cf!Jill (Bi1! onion skin) 
l\h 11'ft:uu 
(.'o nt n11 
~ l u rn 
C.'.- ~n lr•h ~lh 
Fc- Sulp fl::.h· 
l 'ol. U khr•u ru . ·~ 
~n 
h lur ill t"'( it H 
,...,n 
C'ltlu~ltlt-! I\. , 
Figure 4.36 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of A. cepa with different 
mordants. 
... 
(d) Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements in the dye and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of methanolic extract of 
A. cepa and fabric dyed with A. cepa extract in mgll are tabulated in Table 4.32. 
Table 4.32 Characterisation of environmental impact 
Trace elements (mgll) Cu Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni Cr 
ln the dye (mg/1) NO 0.12 NO 0.03 NO ND NO 0.43 0.14 
Dyed fabric (mgll) 0.02 0.12 ND NO ND NO NO ND NO 
COD of the extract 154 -300 
N D - Not detected up to I 0 mgll 
Results indicate that elements of major concern to the environment are absent in the dye 
solution and one can expect an effluent of much less impurities from dye operation 
involving A.cepa. 
119 
91,512 
4.12.6 Mangustene (Garcinia Mangostana) 
a b 
Figure 4.37 a,b Fresh fruit of G. Mangostana and dried pencarp 
Kingdom Plantae 
Division Magnoliophyta I 
Family Clusiaccac 
Genus Garcinia 
Species G. mangostana 
Source Domestic and sellers 
(a) Characterization 
Spectral analysis of the dye extract: Methanolic extract was also prepared to record 
UY-Yisible spectrum as shown in Figure 4.38. Peaks are Shown at 210 nm and 280 nm. 
30 
25 
$ 
~ 20 
-e 
0 
~ 15 
1.0 
05 
\ 
280 nm 
ooL-----------------~=================-­
~ 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 
WIVI Lingll'l (nm) 
Figure 4.38 UV-Vis spectrum of methanolic extract of G.mangostana 
120 
(b) Colour measurements: K/S were measured for cotton, si lk fabrics and wool yam 
as shown in Figures 4.39 - 4.41 and CIE lab values are shown in Tables 4.33- 4.35. 
12 
- control 
10 
-- Alum 
Tannic acid 
B 
- Copper sulphate 
~ - Ferrous sulphate 
~ 
> 6 
- Potassium sulphate 
,tJ') 
·:I:: 
4 
-+- Stannous sulphate 
- - Stannic chloride 
2 
0 I I I I I I I I I ;f 
e ~ ~ § ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ffi § ~ ~ f8 ffi ~ 
w .welength tmn) 
Figure 4.39 Change in K/S values for cotton samples after dyeing with methanolic 
extract of G. mangostana 
The best values are obtained with ferrous sulphate (K/S value of 77.70) and the order 
of reactivity is Fe> Cr > Cu > Al >Sn (IV) > Sn (II) for cotton samples as shown in 
Figure 4.38. ... 
Table 4.33 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
G.mangostana 
Pre-mordanting L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 54.817 13.25 24.94 28.24 -- 37.61 
Alum 53.338 5.51 20.30 21.04 9. 14 39.65 
Ferrous sulphate 49.259 2.60 8.40 8.79 20.43 77.70 
Stannous chloride 54.287 7. 17 22.47 23.52 6.57 46.05 
Copper sulphate 53.399 7.18 20.98 21.17 7.38 55.98 
Pot. dichromate 54.347 8.62 23.52 25.05 4.85 73.37 
Stannic chloride 54.567 8. 10 23.21 24.59 5.43 47.19 
The best values are obtained with ferrous sulphate (K/S value of 93.32) and the order 
of reactivity is Fe> Cr > Cu > AI >Sn {IV) > Sn (II) for silk samples as shown in 
Figure 4.39. 
121 
: :  j~ 
'  \  
~ 
8  
~ 
( / ' )  
~ 
4  
2  
o l  I I  ·~··~ 
I  ~"-;" , 
0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  g  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ S  ~ ~ ~ ~ R  
w a v e l e n g t h  ( m n )  
- c o n t r o l  
- - A l u m  
C o p p e r  s u i  p h  a t e  
· " · - F e r r o u s  s u l p h a t e  
- P o t a s s i u m  d i c h r o m a t e  
- s t a n n o u s  c h l o r i d e  
- - S t a n n i c  c h l o r i d e  
F i g u r e  4 . 4 0  C h a n g e  i n  K / S  v a l u e s  f o r  s i l k  s a m p l e s  a f t e r  d y e i n g  w i t h  m e t h a n o l i c  e x t r a c t  o f  
G .  m a n g o s t a n a .  
T h e  b e s t  v a l u e s  a r e  o b t a i n e d  w i t h  f e r r o u s  s u l p h a t e  ( K / S  v a l u e  o f  1 2 9 , 5 7 )  a n d  t h e  o r d e r  o f  
;  
r e a c t i v i t y  i s  F e >  C u  >  C r  > >  A l  > S n  ( I V )  >  S n  ( I I )  f o r  w o o l  s a m p l e s  a s  s h o w n  i n  F i g u r e  
4 . 3 9 .  
T a b l e  4 . 3 4  C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s  f o r  s i l k  f a b r i c  d y e d  w i t h  m e t h a n o l i c  e x t r a c t  o f  G . m a n g o s t a n a  
P r e - m o r d a n t i n g  
L *  a *  b *  c  
C o n t r o l  5 9 . 9 7 4  1 0 . 1 4  
2 4 . 0 3  2 6 . 0 9  
A l u m  
6 2 . 7 3 2  1 . 0 2  2 6 . 4 9  2 6 . 5 1  
F e r r o u s  s u l p h a t e  5 4 . 7 7 5  
1 . 6 2  8 . 4 8  8 . 6 4  
S t a n n o u s  c h l o r i d e  6 0 . 8 6 0  1 . 7 6  2 3 . 9 2  
. . .  2 3 . 9 6  
C o p p e r  s u l p h a t e  
5 9 . 2 1 1  6 . 0 1  2 1 . 0 4  2 1 . 8 8  
P o t .  d i c h r o m a t e  6 0 . 6 5 9  
5 . 1 6  2 4 . 8 7  2 5 . 4 0  
S t a n n i c  c h l o r i d e  6 1 . 1 5 5  2 . 3 7  
2 5 . 1 1  2 5 . 2 2  
2 5  
I  
2 0 1\  
~ 
1 5  
~ 
( / )  
~ 
1 0  
5  
0  
~ 6  ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ §  ~ ~ ~ ~ §  ~ ~ 
w . w e l e n g t h  { m n )  
H  K / S  
- - -
2 6 . 3 1  
9 . 8 4  
3 0 . 3 4  
1 8 . 4 7  
9 3 . 3 2  
8 . 4 3  3 5 . 4 8  
5 . 1 6  2 7 . 1 9  
5 . 0 9  3 4 . 5 2  
7 . 9 3  4 5 . 7 9  
- c o n t r o l  
- A l u m  
C o p p e r s  u l p h a t e  
~Fe r rous s u l p h a t e  
- P o t a s s i u m  d i c h r o m a t e  
- S t a n n o u s  c h l o r i d e  
- - ' - - S t a n n i c  c h l o r i d e  
~ 
F i g u r e  4 . 4 1  C h a n g e  i n  K / S  v a l u e s  w i t h  d i f f e r e n t  m o r d a n t s  f o r  w o o l  y a r n s  a f t e r  d y e i n g  
w i t h  m e t h a n o l i c  e x t r a c t  o f  G . m a n g o s t a n a  
1 2 2  
I'he best values are obtained with ferrous sulphate and the order of reactivity is Fe> Cu > 
Cr >> AI >Sn (IV) > Sn (11) for wool samples as shown in Figure 4.43. 
Table 4.35 Characteristics for wool yarns dyed with mcthanolic extract of G. mangos/ana 
Pre-mordanting L* a* b* c H KJS 
Control 64.914 10.28 11.87 15.71 -- 14.28 
Alum 67.309 5.20 18.63 19.35 8.79 3 1.58 
-
-
Ferrous sulphate 64.021 1.55 9.64 9.77 9.05 129.57 
Stannous chloride 68.967 5.73 21.35 22.11 11.27 15.25 l 
-
. 
59.47 I Copper sulphate 66.03 1.38 I 5.45 15.51 .19.65 
-
r Potassium dichromate 66.615 4.75 17.57 18.20 8.12 50.51 
-I-
Stannic chloride 67.543 6.59 18.31 19.46 7.87 28.65 
Different mordants arc used in 1-2 % keeping in mind the toxicity factor of some 
mordants. Varied hues of colour can be obtained from pre mordanting the cotton. silk and 
\vool yarn with FeS04, SnCh, CuS04. SnCI4. K2Cr201 and alum were dyed by methanolic 
extract of pericarp of G.rnangostana as shown in the F.igure 4.48. the different mordants 
not only cause difference in hue colour and significant changes in KIS values but also L* 
values and brightness index values. The cotton samples were pre-treated with tannic acid 
before mordanting. The colour strengths, KIS has been found to be very good in dyed 
samples. 
(c) Fastness properties of dyed fabrics: 
Fastness properties of metal mordanted samples for the conventional dyeing conditions 
arc shown in Table 4.36. 
"' 
123 
Table 4.36 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn under 
conventional dyeing with different metal modanting with rnethanolic 
extract of G. mangos/ana 
Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Per arldic Per ba.slc Rubdr) Rub,e1 LF 
Cotton (Control) 2-3 3 3 2-3 2-3 2 
Cotton (Alum) 4 4 3 3-4 3-4 3 
Cotton (FeS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Cotton (CuS04) 4 4 4 4 4 3 
Silk (Control) 2 2 2-3 2-3 2 '- '2 
Silk (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 / 4 
Silk (FeS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 
Silk (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Wool (Control) 3-4 3-4 3 3 3 3-4 
Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 3 I 
Wool (FeS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4 I 
I 
Wool (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4 
... 
WF - wash fastness. LF = light fastness , Per - Perspiration fastness, Rub - Rubbing fastness. 
The fastness properties have also been evaluated and were found to be well above the 
acceptable limits. 
( Mangustine) 
Figure 4.42 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of G.mangostana with 
different mordants 
124 
Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of G. mangostana with different 
mordants show attractive shades for dyeing textile substrates. 
(d) Characterization of environmental impacts 
Trace elements in the dye, and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of methanolic 
extract of G. mangostana and fabric dyed with G. mangostana extract in mg/1 are 
tabulated in Table 4.37. 
Table 4.37 Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements (mg/1) C u Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni C r 
In the dye (mg/1) ND 0.01 ND 0.03 ND 0.04 ND ND ND 
: 
. 
Dyed fabric (mg/1) 0.02 0.10 ND ND ND NO ;I 'ND ND ND 
COD of the extract (mg/1) 180-250 
NO Not detected up to I Orng/1 
Results indicate that elements of major concern to the environment are absent in the 
dye solution and one can expect an effluent of much less impurities from dye 
operation involving G.mangostana. 
4.12.7 Jak fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) 
Class 
Order 
Family 
Genus 
Source 
' 
a b 
Figure 4.43 a, b A. heterophylfus plant and saw dust 
: Magnoliopsida 
:Rosales 
: Moraceae 
: Artocarpus 
:Saw dust from saw mills at Moratuwa area 
125 
~ 
(a) Characterization 
Visible spectrum of A. heterophyllus bark extract: The crude methanolic extract 
from A. heterophyllus bark showed peaks at 260 nm and 350 nm. Most of the yellow 
dyes show similar visible spectrum. 
~ 
2 .:D 
~.DO 
2~ 
! ·t'T. 
Q,) 11JSO 
(.) ffi ., 
€ 5: 11 .100 
~ 10 .7'5 
0 
0 2lJ 
o.oo 
260 nm 
/ .350 nm / / 
.200 :.zt.IO .1(10 ..., ..... 000 e=IO 700 lf .so 
w._.~l'lln) 
Figure 4.44 UV-Vis spectrum ofmcthanolic extract of A. heterophyllus bark 
(b) Colour measurements: K/S were measured for cotton, silk fabrics and wool yam as 
shown in Figures 4.45-4.47 and CIE lab values are shown in Tables 4.38- 4.40 . 
Cll 
::;:) 
~ 
~ 
8 
7 
... 
Q o o = n 8 o o ~ o 8 0 o o n ~ 
O' _;) ·:•J "7 = <To ~ ''""I -:T U::• •:T,• ~~~ 1' <;Co ·:T,• -' 
....,. -t' -1- --::f" ~ lt J lt l 1 (, I f) l -4 ,1 \J,. I Uo;.l (.L.I (.L:o 'V -
wavelength tlun.) 
-+- C..:.ntl':·l 
.--Tannic a.: id 
_,._ A. tum 
.....,._ •:J.·I='P""r sul~·hat~ 
--F.:-n1::.us s ulphat.:-
_._ Po tas.s iunl ·:h·~ lll':•ma t.;­
-+-- Stannous o: hl<:·ri,~l~ 
- Stannio: •: t·,to:·rid.:o 
Figure 4.45 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics 
after dyeing with methanolic extract of A. heterophyllus 
126 
Table 4.38 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
A.heterophyllus 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H KIS 
Control 67.68 5.08 21.84 22.42 76.86 14.65 
Control+ TanAcid 68.23 2.36 22.53 22.65 83.97 17.41 
Alum 69.31 4.13 25.67 26.00 80.82 24.18 
Pre- Copper sulphate 67.33 2.65 20.93 21.10 82.73 23.49 
Mordanting Ferrous sulphate 66.77 4.79 19.74 20.31 76.32 39.52 
Pot. Dichromate 68.07 3.04 22.61 22.81 82.31 35.22 
Stanous chloride 71.56 4.04 30.01 30.28 82.28 20.33 
Stannic chloride 69.01 5.44 24.78 25.37 77.57 17.04 
The order of K/S values is as following: Fe > Cr > AI > Cu > Sn (ll) ,> ·sn (N) in 
cotton for methanolic extract of A. heterophyllus, the absorption of /o1our by cotton 
fabric was enhanced when using Ferrous sulphate as metal mordant with optimum K/S 
value of39.52 with corresponding CIE Lab values. 
Cl 
:::::1 
ti 
,> 
~ 
12 
... 
-.-Control 
- Alum 
• Co:--tJper sulvhato? 
-M- Fo:-11ous sulph3t.; 
--PC·la:iSIUm didi10010l€' 
~St<1nnov.:; •:hlorid"' 
- s tannic chl•)r~j.=. 
g ~ ~ g 2 ~ ~ ~ £ 2 g ~ ~ g g 8 ~ -1" -t -t "'11" ei) 1() U""> U/ 10 <&:· 0 C.0 (:J. ~ , ... _, 
Wave le ngth (run) 
.Figure 4 .46 Change in K/S values with differeht mordants for silk fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of A. heterophyllus 
Table 4.39 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of A. 
heterophyllus 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S I 
Control 66.18 0.93 16.66 16.69 86.76 14.2 5 
Alum 67.30 0.56 19.48 19.49 88.29 14.35 
Pre- Copper sulphate 7
0.77 2.86 27.75 27.90 84.08 44.85 
Mordanting Ferrous sulphate 66.65 2.50 18.41 18.58 
82.21 45.62 
Pot. Dichromate 66.69 0.61 17.84 17.85 88.00 15.58 
Stanous chloride 68.99 -1.01 22.96 22.98 92.57 15.84 
Stannic chloride 68.42 1.49 22.00 22.05 86.07 19.00 
--
127 
The order of K/S values is as following: Fe > Cu > Sn (IV) > Sn (II) > Cr >AI in silk 
for A. heterophyllus, the absorption of colour by silk fabric was enhanced when using 
Ferrous sulphate as metal mordant with optimum K/S value of 45.62 with 
corresponding CIE Lab values. 
13 
11) 
H 
12 
~ 
:::;) 10 
c; 
> 8 
th 
~ 6 
~ 
~ 1 . i·i£ii;;;;a1J I I I!. q 
0 0 Q 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 D 0 C• ,£, 0 ' I • Q ,. CD 0 ;- t;:j :;f -r ~ ,,., .. ;(. .,Q, ~ t.V ~ i!. iB Q ,.... 
Wavelength (mn' 
-+- ContP)I 
--Alum 
CoppH sulphat.:. 
1 ~·· FerrO!..G stJph..1to? 
-tt- Potassi..nn d~erwono.:tt~ 
_._Stannous ·~hlonc!E 
-+-Stannic ·:hlw:l~ 
.J 
Figure 4.47 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yam after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of A. heterophy llus 
Table 4.40 Characteristics for wool yam dyed with methanolic extract of 
A. heteroph yllus 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H 
Control 68.66 5.05 17.58 18.29 73.93 
Alum 70.03 4.22 22.16 22.56 79.17 
Pre- CopperSulphate 67.34 -2.25 14.51 14.68 98.86 
Mordanting Ferrous Sulphate 67.51 4.23 17.05 17.56 76.03 
Pot. Dichromate 70.46 2.93 24.26 24.44 83.07 
StanousChloride 72.40 2.18 24.87 24.97 84.94 
Stannic Chloride 75.59 4.58 30.11 30.45 81.31 
KIS 
13.09 
19.13 
34.83 
64.15 
35.71 
13.87 
18.56 
The order ofK/S values is as following: Fe > Cr > Cu > AI > Sn (IV) > Sn (II) in wool 
for methanolic extract of A. heterophyllus, the absorption of colour by wool yarn was 
enhanced when using Ferrous sulphate as metal mordant with optimum K/S value of 
64.15 with corresponding CIE Lab values. Fe (II) provides best chelation in all the 
three cases. 
It was observed that the pre mordanting technique with metal mordants imparted good 
fastness properties to the cotton, wool and silk fabric. Control samples without 
mordant were also prepared for comparison. Therefore, in pre mordanting technique, 
128 
(c) Fastness properties of dyed fabrics 
The fastness properties of fabrics dyed with and without metal salts are shown in Table 
-l.4 1. 
Table ~A 1 rastncss properties of dyed cotton. silk fabrics and wool yam under 
conventional conditions of metal modanting with mcthanolic extract of A. 
heterophy/1 us 
Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Pcracid•c Perbas•c Rubdl') Rub\\ct LF 
Cotton (control) 3-4 3 3 3 3 3-4 
Cotton (Alum) 4 4 3-4 3-4 3-4' 4 
Cotton (FcS04) 4-5 4 4 4 ;I 4 4-5 
Cotton (CuS0-1) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (control) 3 3 3 3 3 3 
Sill-. (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (FcSO-t) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 5 
Silk (CuSO.~) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Wool (control) .., .) .., .) 
.., 
.) 
.., 
.) 
.., 
.) 3 ! ! 
Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 .. 4 4 4 
Wool (FcS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 
Wool (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4 -5 
WI· = wash fastness. LF = light fastness, Per Perspiration fastness. Rub - Rubbing fastness. 
The colorimetric data obtained from dyed fabrics and yarn which had been pre treated 
with tannic acid/metal mordants in the case of cotton and onl} metal mordants in the 
cases of silk and \\-Ool rc\'eal that pre treatment markedly improved the wash fastness. in 
terms of change of shade of the dyed fabrics with respect to control samples. It also 
increased the colour strength and flattened the shade of the dyeings. 
129 
frtOCilr'f'll!!> l•cfc~rr~fthil/n,• <(.Js.~) 
·~fc,r&J..;_4•J 
·<"<>JUrol 
"'-"IMnt 
.u :=>olto!l .. t 
.-.......... ," ........ 
~ 
~1-Wt"'l'' 
j 
Figure 4.48 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of A. heterophyllus with 
different mordants. 
(d) Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements in the dye and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of methanolic 
extract of A. heteropyllus and fabric dyed with A. hete,.ophyllus extract in mg/1 are 
tabulated in Table 4.42. 
Table 4.42 Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements (mg/1) Cu Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni Cr 
. 
In the dye (mg/1) ND 0.04 NO 0.03 ND 0.04 ND 0.03 0.04 
Dyed fabric {mg/1) 0.02 0.03 NO NO ND ND NO ND ND 
COD of the extract (mgll) 149 -200 
ND Not detected up to 1 Omg/1 
Results indicate that elements of major concern to the environment are absent in the 
dye solution and one can expect an effluent of much less impurities from dye 
operation involving A. heterophyllus. 
130 
4.12.8 Tea (Camelia sinensis) 
a b 
Figure 4.49 a, b Fresh tea leaves and dried leaves 
Botanical name Camellia sinensis 
Family Theaceae I 
Source Waste tea leaves from domestic kitchens and restaurants 
(a) Preparation and optimization of aqueous extract of C. sinensis 
The dried used C. sinensis leaves were found to give colour in hot water very easily by 
aqueous extraction. Increasing the quantity of leaves from 2.0 g to 20.0 g per 100 ml 
water boiled for 1 hour is accompanied with increase in colour strength and depth in 
colour hue. " 
(b) Characterization 
Methanolic extract was also prepared to record UV-Visible spectrum as shown in 
Figures 4.50. This spectrum indicates that C.sinensis extract shows peaks at 280 nrn 
and 355 nm . 
._ ....... 
Z.7S 
.. .., 
226 
... 
~ • 
~ ·-c::: ta ~ •eo 0 
~on 
•.o 
260nm 
./ 355 nm 
/ 
OH 
1)80 
liQI) 
.. :)00 - ~ ... ,... .. .., - 7CIO 7SD -
w ..... .c-. 
Figure 4.50 UV-Vis spectrum of methanolic extract of C. sinensis 
13 1 
(c) Colour measurements : K/S were measured for cotton, silk fabrics and wool 
yam as shown in Figures 4.51- 4.53 and ClE lab values are shown in Tables 4.43-
4.45. 
14 
12 
10 
~ 
.;; 8 
> 
V> 
::'= 6 
4 
:J ..... 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ ~ 2 0 0 0 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ m ~ 
W.1Velenuth {mn) 
- control 
-- Ttmnlc Ac1d 
Alum 
---.-Copper sulphate 
- Ferrous sulphate 
- Potassium d1chromerte 
--Stannous chlonde 
--Stannic chloride 
/ 
Figure 4.51 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of C. sinensis 
The best values are obtained with ferrous sulphate (K/S value of 34.92) and the order 
of reactivity is Fe> K > Cu > AI > Sn (IV) > Sn (II) for cotton samples as shown in 
Figure 4.51. The cotton samples were pre treated with tannic acid before mordanting . 
... 
Table 4.43 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of C.sinensis 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 72.64 -0.004 2 1.97 21.97 90.04 10.19 
. 
Tannic acid +Dye 74.29 -0.49 26.08 26.08 91.13 16.33 
Alum 74.28 -0.46 26.06 26.06 91.06 16.40 
Pre- Copper sulphate 74.01 0.55 25.94 25.94 88.73 81.86 
mordanting Stannous chloride 76.29 0.06 30.50 30.50 89.84 17.18 
Ferrous sulphate 72.14 2.71 20.86 21.04 82.56 34.92 
Pot. dichromate 73.39 0.90 23.91 23.92 87.80 39.23 
Stannic chloride 74.94 0.97 27.71 27.73 87.95 21.38 
132 
20 
18 j ,._ - control 
- • · Alum 
16 " ... 
14 
q) 12 
·-... ~ .... _..,.____,.__ __ ,...._ 
'-..: 
Copper sulphate 
Ferrous sulphate 
- Potassium dichromate 
-::; 
> 10 
(/) 
::1:: 8 
- Stannous chlonde 
- StanniC chloride ~ 
""'"'---
~ 6 . s ·~···· ~L~.·~· . · .· . ·.· . ·:- :':" . ~ .. '  ... 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ 8 0 0 0 ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ $ ~ ~ 
W~wel e ncjth (IUnl 
Figure 4.52 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fa~cs after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of C. sinensis 
The best values arc obtained with ferrous sulphate (K/S value of 73.68) and the order 
of reactivity is Fe> Cu > Cr > AI > Sn (IV) > Sn (11) for silk samples as shown in 
Figure 4.52. 
Table 4.44 Characteristics for sil k fabric dyed with methanolic extract of C.sinensis 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c 
II KIS 
... 
Control 62.99 -0.69 48.52 48.53 90.85 51.
74 
Alum 65.19 -1.35 52.12 52. 14 91.52 46.1
1 
Copper sulphate 62.89 -2.99 48.3 1 48.3 1 93.58 
58.74 
Pre- Stannous chloride 
mordanting 
62.5 1 -2.90 47.52 47.6 1 93.52 41.72 
Ferrous sulphate 57.4 1 2.97 38.09 39.09 85.60 73.68 
Pot. dichromate 61 .34 0.25 45.73 45.73 89.64 57.40 
Stannic chloride 57.26 -1.95 38.24 38.29 92.96 2 1.75 
133 
I 
30 
25 
20 
- control 
--Alum 
Copper sui phate 
Ferrous sulphate 
- Potassium d1c hromate 
- Stannous chlonde 
41 
:I 
"! > 15 
(I) ~.___................-- .. : '· ·-~· I --.. Stannic chloride ~-...... ~ 
10 
5 
~~ 
"' ... 
' • 
I •• 0 I I i I I I 1 
0 0 
~ ~ ; ~ ~ s ~ ~ ~ ~ 9 ~ g ~ 0 0 ~ R 
Wavelength (run) 
, 
Figure 4.53 Change in KJS values with different mordants for wool i(brics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of C. sinensis 
The best values are obtained with ferrous sulphate (K/S value of 58.67) and the order 
of reactivity is Fe> Cu > Cr > A1 > Sn (IV)> Sn (II) for wool yarns as shown in Figure 
4.53. 
Table 4.45 Characteristics for wool yarn dyed with methanolic extract of 
C.sinensis 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H 
Control 56.45 3.87 46.52 46.68 85.21 
Alum 48.77 7.32 33.21 34.01 77.54 
Copper sulphate 47.95 -2.29 30.17 30.26 94.38 
Pre- Stannous chloride 55.79 4.83 45.34 45.60 83.88 
mordanting 
Ferrous sulphate 57.39 5.46 48.09 48.40 83.47 
Pot. Dichromate 54.07 4.87 42.61 42.88 83.43 
Stannic chloride 48.92 8.21 32.90 33.91 75.95 
Optimization of mordants with K/S and colour hue changes 
K/S 
76.98 
37.16 
81.36 
54.94 
58.67 
104.88 
50.56 
Different mordants are used in 1-2 % keeping in mind the toxicity factor of some 
mordants and in line with the objectives of this study. Varied hues of colour can be 
obtained from pre mordanting the cotton, silk and wool yam with FeS04, SnCl2, 
CuS04, SnC4. K2Cr20 7 and alum were dyed by methanolic extract of leaves of C. 
sinensis as shown in the Fi&rure 4.53, the different mordants not only cause difference 
134 
depth of shade also increased (i.e. K/S of 0.9860 increased to 2.1746). Similar results 
were obtained for the samples dyed in the presence of mordants using different dyeing 
techniques. 
This could be attributed to the population effect of dye molecules present in the dye bath 
at higher concentrations. It was observed that, from the three dyeing techniques used for 
dyeing cotton with methanolic extract of C. sinensis, the post mordanting method showed 
a higher depth of shade, as \>veil as colour values. compared with the fabrics dyed using 
the other two methods. 
'I his may be due to the !:,rreater complex-forming ability of the metal ions with the dye 
molecules in this technique. C. sinensis has a very good substantivity lor :cotton. Thus, in 
the post-mordanting method, the dye is adsorbed onto the fib!J.' followed b) the 
formation of an insoluble complex with metal ions. 
(d) Fas tness properties of dyed fabrics 
fhe fastness properties of fabrics dyed ""ith and without metal salts are sho\\ n in Table 
4.46. 
Table 4.46 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn under 
conventional dyeing with different metal modanting '"'ith methanolic 
extract of C. sinensis ... 
Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Per acidic Perba~ic Rubdrv Rub,,e~ LF 
Cotton (control) 4 2 2 2-3 2-3 4 
Cotton (Alum) 4 4 3-4 3-4 3-4 4 
Cotton (FeS04) 4-5 4 ' 4 4 4 4-5 
Cotton (CuSO.~) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (control) 2 2 2-3 2-3 
.., 2 
Silk (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (FcS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 
Silk (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Wool (control) 3-4 3-4 3 3 3 3-4 
Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Wool (FeS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 5 
Wool (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 ,4-5 ----
""F - wash fastness, LF ~ light fastness , Per- Perspiration fastness .. Rub Rubbing fastness. 
135 
{ umdlla ,;,..,;, '( a nu 
I 
Figure 4.54 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of C. sinensis with different 
mordants. 
The control sample shows comparatively good light and wash fastness properties, 
which were further improved with mordanting. Thus, ferrous sulphate and copper 
sulphate and showed the most marked effect on the light fastness of dyed cotton 
samples, irrespective of the method of mordanting. In the case of samples dyed by the 
simultaneous-mordanting and post-mordanting tectu'liques, higher light fastness 
ratings were observed as compared with the pre-mordanting method of dyeing, 
irrespective of the mordant used. This could be attributed to the more rigid complex 
formation of the dye with a mordant, possibly due to better penetration of the dye 
molecules in the fibre matrix during meta- and post mordanting techniques. 
(e) Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements in the dye and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of methanolic 
extract of C. sinensis and fabric dyed with C. sinensis extract in mg/1 are tabulated in 
Table 4.47. 
Table 4.47 Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace clements (mg/1) Cu Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni Cr 
In the dye (mg/1) ND 0.12 NO 0.03 ND 0.04 ND 0.43 0.14 
Dyed fabric (mg/1) 0.02 0.12 NO NO NO ND ND ND ND 
COD of the extract 270-300 
'\ 0 Not detected up to I Omg/1 
136 
Results indicate that elements of major concern to the environment are absent in the 
dye solution and one can expect an cfnuent of much less impurities from dye 
operation involving C.sinensis. 
4.12.9 Walmadata (Rubia cordifolia) 
a b 
Figure 4.55 a, b R. cord~folia plant and dried chips 
Local Name 
Botanical N arne 
Colour Extracted 
Parts Used 
Source 
Part Used 
(a) Characterization 
Walmadata 
Rubia cordifolia 
Reddish orange 
The whole plant, mainly from roots, stems and leaves 
Traditional medicinal shops... 
Dried roots and stem 
Visible spectrum of R. cordifolia extract: The mcthanolic extract from R.cordifolia 
shows peak at 400 nm. 
$ 
I u 
c ':J 
~~I ----
- ~ ~ - - - ~ ~ ~ _.,...._oo 
Figure 4.56 UV-Vis spectrum ofmethanol ic extract of R. cordifolia 
137 
(b) Colour measurements: K/S were measured for cotton, silk fabrics and wool yam 
as shown in Figures 4.57- 4.59 and CIE lab values are shown in Tables 4.48- 4.50. 
ell 
:::: 
iS 
> 
·JI 
::.::: 
12 
10 
8 
4 
2 
I ~..-.;~· n _ 
0 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I = ;.!L; .~;~ I I I I i i 
8 ~ ~ g g 0 ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ 8 
. ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -
w.welength (tun) 
-+-Control 
--Tannic acid 
Alum 
I - - Copper sulphate 
___._ Ferrous SUlphate 
-- Potassium diciYomate 
-+- Stamous chloride 
--Stamic chloride 
;f 
Figure 4.57 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of R. cordifolia 
Table 4.48 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
R.cordifolia 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H 
Control 72.64 0.004 ..21.97 21.97 90.04 
Tannic acid + Dve 74.29 -0.49 26.08 26.08 91.13 
Alum 74.28 -0.46 26.06 26.06 91.06 
Pre- Cooner sulohate 74.01 0.55 25.94 25.94 88.73 
mordanting Stannous chloride 76.29 0.06 30.50 30.50 89.84 
Ferrous sulohate 72.14 2.71 20.86 21.04 82.56 
Pot. dichromate 73.39 0.90 23.91 23.92 87.80 
Stannic chloride 74.94 0.97 27.71 27.73 87.95 
KJS 
10.19 
16.33 
16.40 
81.86 
17.18 
39.92 
29.23 
21.38 
The best values are obtained for methanolic extract of R. cordifolia with ferrous 
sulphate (K/S value of 39.92) and the order of reactivity is Fe> Cr > Cu > AI > Sn (IV) 
> Sn (II) for cotton samples as shown in Figure 4.58. The cotton samples were pre 
treated with tannic acid before mordanting. 
~ 
~ 
138 
16 
14 
12 
~ 10 
g 8 
Cl) 
~ 6 
4 
2 
ol., ,,,, ,.....~ _ ,,, ,, ., ... t I I I i 1 ; , I i Fi i 
0 0 0 0 
0 N 'OS' CO 
11' 11' 'OS' 'OS' 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s ~ ~ .~ m g 
Wavelength (mn) 
- control 
- AlUm 
-.... Copper suphate 
~ F erroos sulphate 
-P~assium cichn:mate 
- s tamoos c~cride 
--stamic chlll'ide 
-
Figure 4.58 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fa~ycs after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of R. cordifolia 
Table 4.49 Characteristics for silk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of R. cordifolia 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c B K/S 
Control 62.99 -0.69 48.52 48.53 90.85 51.74 
Alum 65.19 -1.35 52.12 52.14 91.52 56.11 
Copper sulphate 62.89 -2.99 48.31 48.31 93.58 58.74 
Pre- Stannous chloride 62.51 -2.90 47.52 47.61 93.52 61.72 
mordanting 
Ferrous sulphate 57.41 2.97 3&09 39.09 85.60 83.68 
Pot. dichromate 61.34 0.25 45.73 45.73 89.64 57.40 
Stannic chloride 57.26 -1.95 38.24 38.29 92.96 61.75 
fhe best values are obtained with ferrous sulphate, (K/S value of 83.68) and the order 
of reactivity is Fe> Cu > Cr > AI > Sn (IV) > Sn (II) for silk samples as shown in 
Figure 4.59. 
139 
Cl 
..2 g 
(I) 
:£ 
60 
40 
30~  
20 
10 
ol -........_ 
•••••••••• ~pr- ~· ~ .. f ' ' ' • , • • • ••• • • • ' ' 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s ~ ~ ·~ ~ ~ 
\\':wt> lt11gtl1 {lun) 
- conrOI 
- - Alum 
--eowe~ su\\'*\ile 
--F enous sulphate 
-- Potassnm dichromate 
- Stamous chlOiide 
-+- Stam ic chJoide 
Figure 4.59 Change in K/S values with different mordants for wool yarns after 
j 
dyeing with methanolic extract of R. cordifolia · 
Table 4.50 Characteristics for wool yam dyed with methanolic extract of R. cordifolia 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H KJS 
Control 56.45 3.87 46.52 46.68 85.21 76.98 
Alum 48.77 7.32 33.21 34.01 77.54 37.16 
Copper sulphate 47.95 -2.29 30.17 30.26 94.38 81.36 
Pre- Stannous chloride 55.79 4.83 45.34 45.60 83.88 84.94 
mordanting 
Ferrous sulphate 57.39 5.46 4'8.09 48.40 83.47 183.67 
Pot. dichromate 54.07 4.87 42.61 42.88 83.43 104.88 
Stannic chloride 48.92 8.21 32.90 33.91 75.95 80.56 
The best values are obtained with ferrous sulphate (K/S value of 183.67) and the order 
of reactivity is Fe> Cu > Cr > AI > Sn (IV) > Sn (II) for wool yarns as shown in Figure 
4.59. 
Effect of mordanting conditions 
The colorimetric data obtained from dyed fabrics and yam which had been pre treated 
with tannic acid/metal mordants in the case of cotton and only metal mordants in the 
cases of silk and wool reveal that pre treatment markedly improved the wash fastness, 
in terms of change of shade of the dyed fabrics with respect to control samples. It also 
increased the colour strength and flattened the shade of the dyeings. It was observed 
that the pre mordanting technique with metal mordants imparted good fastness 
properties to the cotton, wool and silk fabric. Control samples without mordant were 
also prepared for comparison. Therefore, in pre mordanting technique, the dyed 
140 
fabrics were mordanted with stannic chloride, stannous chloride. ferrous sulphate, copper 
sulphate, potassium dichromate and alum. The conventional dyeing of cotton, silk and 
wool fabric and yam with and without mordant by the methanolic extract of R. cord{fblia. 
show that metal mordant showed very good results. The dye uptake values are 14.8 %. 
and 33.5% for without and with metal mordants respective!). In the case of conventional 
dyeing. the dye uptake \alues are 38 % and 47 % for dye-alone and dye metal 
simultaneous mordanting methods respectively. The effectiveness of metal mordant R. 
cord(f'olia in better dye uptake may appear to be more as compared to without 
mordanting, and the reduction in effiuent pollution as well as improved fastness 
properties outweighs its benefit. 
(c) Fastness properties of dyed fabrics 
" Fastness properties of dyed cotton. silk fabrics and wool yam under conventional dyeing 
with different metal modants with methanolic extract of R. cordifolia are shown in Table 
4.51. 
Table 4.51 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yarn under 
conventional heating with different metal modanting \\ ith methanolic 
extract of R. cordilolia 
Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Per acidic Perba~ic Rubctr, Rub"ct LF 
Cotton (Control) 2-3 2 2 2-3 2-3 2 
Cotton (Alum) 4 4 3-4 3-4 3-4 4 
Cotton (FeS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Cotton (CuS04) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (Control) 2 2 ' 2-3 2-3 2 2 
Silk (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Silk (FeS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 
Silk (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
Wool (Control) 3-4 3-4 3 3 "' .) 3-4 
Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 4 
Wool (FeS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 5 
Wool (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 4-5 
WF wash fastness. LF- light fastness. Per Perspiration fastnes~. Rub- Rubbing fastness.. 
~ 
141 
\\ tdtnlllld~t~ 
j 
Figure 4.60 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of R. cordifolio with 
different mordants 
(d) Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements in the dye and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of methanolic 
extract of R. cordifolia and fabric dyed with R. cordifolia extract in mgll are tabulated 
in Table 4.52. 
Table 4.52 Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements (mgll) Cu Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni Cr 
0 
In the dye (mgll) ND 0.12 NO 0.03 ND ND NO 0.43 0.14 
Dyed fabric (mgll) 0.02 0.12 NO ND ND NO ND NO ND 
COD of the extract (mgll) 134-250 
NO - Not detected up to I 0 mg/1 
Results indicate that elements of major concern to the environment are absent in the 
dye solution and one can expect an effluent of much less impurities from dye 
operation involving R.cordifolia. 
R. cordifolia was found to have good agronomic potential as a dye crop in western 
province of Sri Lanka. Metal mordants when used in conjunction with R. cordifolia 
were found to enhance the dye-ability due to the AI contents present in the leaves. 
Enhancement of dye uptake was 23.5% with Copper sulphate, 33.5% with alum 
142 
and 14.8 % without any mordant. Use of mordant not only enhances the fastness 
properties but also gives good colorimetric data on dyeing. Even the fastness 
properties in this case show good results, with mordanted dye, developed for the ease 
of industrial application offers an eco friendly process which should be popularized as 
an alternate method to the existing dyeing methods. 
4.12.10 Turmeric (Curcuma domestica) 
a b 
Figure 4.61 a,b C.domestica plant and root 
Family 
Species 
Source 
(a) Characterization 
Zingiberaceae 
C. domestica 
Available across the country 
Visible spectrum of C. domestica extract: ... 
The mcthanolic extract from C. domestica shows peak at 205 run and 220 run. 
A 220nm 
2.25 1 / 
1\ 
2.00 
~ 75 
~ 1 50 
u 
la 1 25 
-€ 
0 
.. 
.D. 1 00 
c( 
0 75 
0.50 
025 
000 
200 25ol 300 3SO 400 4!)0 soo 550 
Wave Length (nm) 
Figure 4.62 UV-Vis spectrum of methanolic extract of C. domestica 
143 
6(10 
(b) Colour measurements: K/S were measured for cotton, silk fabrics and wool yam 
as shown in Figures 4.63 - 4.65 and CIE Lab values are shown in Tables 4.53 - 4.55. 
16 
14 
12 
~ 10 
;::: 
> 8 !,!_) 
::.::: 
6 
4 
2 
- control 
- Tannic acid 
A tum 
--Copper suphate 
- Ferrous sulphate 
- Potassium die hromate 
--+-- S tannous chlonde 
--Stannic chloride 
0 I I • ' ' • I I • I i i i • • I I • • -' • I I • ..,..L!f'4l£¥l4l:r;:z:z::;.:L. t · 
8 ~ ~ 8 ~ 8 ~ ~ ~ ~ 8 ~ ~ 9 ~ 8 
~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 
W<~~~e le ngth (lun) 
Figure 4.63 Change in K/S values with different mordants for cotton fabrics after 
dyeing with methanolic extract of C. domestica 
The sequence ofK/S values according to the mordant activity is AI > Fe > Cu > Sn (ll) 
> Sn (IV) > K in cotton for methanolic extract of C. domestica. The best values are 
obtained with Alum (K/S value of 92.42) as metal m~rdant. 
T able 4.53 Characteristics for cotton fabric dyed with methanolic extract of 
C.domestica 
Method Mordant L* a* b* c H 
Control 50.265 
. 
8.79 26.61 28.02 7 1.68 
Control + Tan. acid 50.3 14 9.76 27.01 28.72 70.09 
Alum 51.800 8.44 29.56 30.74 74.03 
Pre- Copper sulphate 50.306 7.29 26.87 27.84 74.78 
mordanting Ferrous sulphate 43.1 26 1.44 7.30 7.44 78.82 
Pot. dichromate 50.887 7.28 27.82 28.76 75.30 
Stannous chloride 52.850 10.64 31.68 33 .42 71.41 
Stannic chloride 53.694 11 .80 33.33 35.36 70.46 
... 
144 
KJS 
55.66 
68.21 
92.42 
89.98 
70. 11 
83.44 
57.01 
58.81 
Kl 
;s 
> 
V'l 
::.:: 
20 
18~ 
16 
14 
12 
10 
8 
6 
4 
2 I "" ~ ~ Q I I I I i I i I j ,(':2. \"ia·- ____&_,. - -- ··--,, ._. 
' I I I i i i i p ,= ,e ,a ,R:;« , 
8 ~ ~ g ~ 8 ~ ~ ~ ~ 8 ~ ~ ~ ~ 8 
v v v v v ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w ~ w ~ 
W.welength (urn) 
--control 
-- Alum 
Copper sulphete 
- ~ Ferrous sui phet e 
-+- Potassium dichromate 
- Stannous chloride 
-+- Stennic chloride 
Figure 4.64 Change in K/S values with different mordants for silk fabrics after dyeing 
with methanolic extract of C. domestica j . 
The sequence of K/S values is as Fe > Cu > K > Sn (IV) > AI > Sn (II) in silk for 
methanolic extract of C. domestica, the absorption of colour by silk fabric was 
enhanced when using Ferrous sulphate as metal mordant with optimum K/S value of 
197.44 with corresponding ClE Lab values. 
Table 4.54 Characteristics for si lk fabric dyed with methanolic extract of C.domestica 
Method Mordant L* a* b* 
Control 60.097 6.24 30.61 
Alum 59.769 4.38 29.52 
Pre- Copper sulphate 59.629 5.68 30.25 
mordantint> Ferrous sulphate 50.203 1.28 4.03 
Pot. dichromate 59.250 5.83 29.17 
so 
45 
40 
35 
8 30 
~ 25 
"' :.<: 20 
15 
10 
... 
Stannous 60.046 6.47 30.40 
Stannic chloride 60.978 8.94 32.90 
' 
~ .... _______ - ---. 
S 1 ;;ll#1V :f :lv I ,.,..,l:f : .. . 0 0 •••• 0 • 
8 ~ ~ g 0 0 ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ g ~ ~ 
v v v v ~ f1! .,., -:/, lX lX lZS lO (b l2S l2S 
W.welen9th hunl 
c H K/S 
31.24 78.44 32.96 
29.85 81.51 45.26 
30.78 79.32 59.51 
4.23 72.32 197.44 
29.74 78.65 59.35 
31.08 77.93 39.88 
34.10 74.77 48.19 
-+- Control 
--- Alum 
Copper sulphete 
--. Ferrous sui phste 
- Potassium dlchrom 8\e 
- Stannous chloride 
---+- Stannic chlonde 
"' 
Figure 4.65 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of C.domesica with 
different mordants 
145 
The order of K/S values is Fe > Cu > K > Sn (IV) > Sn (II) > AI in wool for methanolic 
extract of C. clomestica. the absorption of colour by wool yarn was enhanced when using 
Ferrous sulphate as metal mordant with optimum K/S value of 335.45 with corresponding 
Cll:·, Lab values. 
Table ~.55 Characteristics for \\OOI yarn dyed with methanolic extract of C.domesticu 
r- Mcthod Mordant L* a* b* c H K/S 
Control 57.567 8.23 32.88 33.89 75.91 43.26 
Alum 57.633 8.70 33.03 34.16 75.21 79.39 I 
l 
Copper sulphate 55.814 4.88 29.60 30.00 80.60 133.54 
Pre- Ferrous sulphate 46.34 2.19 5.06 5.52 6658 335.45 
mordanting . 
' 
Pot. dichromate 54.605 5.21 27.83 2~32 79.34 130.17 
Stannous chloride 56.154 9.91 30.16 31.74 71.78 80.30 
Stannic chloride 58.300 9.51 34.18 35.48 74.43 80.94 
Effect of mordanting conditions 
It was observed that the pre mordanting technique \>\ith metal mordants imparted good 
fastness properties to the cotton, wool and si lk fabric. Control samples without mordant 
were also prepared for comparison. 
The colourimetric data obtained from dyed fabrics ~nd yarn which had been pretreated 
\Vith tannic acid/metal mordants in the case of cotton and only metal mordants in the 
cases of silk and wool reveal that pretreatment markedly improved the wash fastness, in 
terms of change of shade of the dyed fabrics with respect to control samples. It also 
increased the colour strength and flattened the snade of the dyeings. 
(c) Fastness properties of dyed fabrics 
Results are shown in Table 4.56 of metal mordanted samples for the dyeing conditions. 
~ 
146 
Table 4.56 Fastness properties of dyed cotton, silk fabrics and wool yam u
nder 
conventional conditions of metal modanting with methanolic extract of 
C.domestica 
Fabric (Mordant) Fastness values 
WF Per acidic Perbasic Rubdrv Rub wet LF 
Cotton (Control) 3-4 3 3 3 3 3-4 
Cotton {Alum) 4 4 3-4 3-4 3-4 3 
Cotton (FeS0 4) 4-5 4 4 4 4 3 
Cotton (CuS04) 4 4 4 4 4 3-4 
Wool (Control) 3 3 3 3 3 3 
Wool (Alum) 4 4 4 4 4 3 
Wool (FcS04) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 3 
Wool (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 3 
Silk (control) 3 3 3 
-3 3 ,- 3 
Si lk (A lum) 4 4 4 4 -4 3-4 
Silk (FcS0 4) 5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 3-4 
Silk (CuS04) 4-5 4 4 4 4 3-4 
WF wash fastness, LF = light fastness , Per - Perspiration fastness, Rub - Ru
bbing fastness. 
( p t( (l_;) \\ ·t.itll 
---
l t! ll 
••m. •• 
( 1hl 1\ 
" 
Figure 4.66 Fabric samples dyed with methanolic extract of C.domestica with 
different mordants 
147 
The dye uptake in case of conventional cotton dyeing ranges from 51-60 %. for silk 56-
72 % and wool 55-65 % with different mordants. The effectiveness of metal mordant-
curcuma in better dye uptake appears to be an improved process resulting in good dye 
adherence which results in good fastness properties its is a good source of natural dye for 
com entional dyeing as observed during the course of this study. In the case of curcuma. 
light fastness is slightl y lower. With the use of proper mordanting conditions this poor 
quality also can be over come. 
(d) Characterization of environmental impact 
Trace elements in the dye and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of methanolic e:-.tract of 
C. domestica and fabric dyed with C. domestica extract in mg/1 are_ tf}bulated in Table 
4.57. ,I 
Table 4.57 Characterization of envi ronmental impact 
-
bee elements (mg/1) Cu Zn Cd Co Pb As Hg Ni Cr 
- -
In the dye (mg/1) NO 0.02 ND 0.0 NO ND ND 0.13 0.11 
Dyed fabric (mg/1) ND I 0.05 ND ND NO ND NO ND NO 
COD of the extract (mg/1) 120 -200 
l\ 0 \Jot detected up to I 0 mg./ I 
Results indicate that clements of major concern to th._e environment are absent in the dye 
solution and one can expect an effluent of much less impurities from dye operation 
imolving C.domestica. 
4.13 Environmental emission characteristics of effluents (COD Analysis) 
Full COD data summar) for the I 0 dye samples are presented in Table 4.58. 
Table 4.58 COD data summary 
Extracted Natural Dye COD Range (mg/1) 
Rambutan 237-300 
Marigold 200-210 
Kothala 175-260 
1-. Wemwalgata 145-260 
Big onion 154-300 
Man gustine 180-250 ~ 
Jak saw dust 149-200 I 
Waste tea leaves 270-300 
Walmadata 134-250 I 
Turmeric 1 120-200 
148 
From the I 0 analysed samples of extracted natural dyes, COD values of 05 samples are in 
the range of Central Environmental Authorit)' 's permissible range (250 ppm) for 
discharge into surface waters -with a I :8 dilution. Therefore some of the natural dyes in 
their chemical oxidative strength is environmentally compatible and can be considered as 
acceptable. Even though COD of other samples are in higher side of the permissible level 
(260-300 ppm), by using simple biological techniques these levels can be reduced to 
acceptable levels than in the case of synthetic dyes. Synthetic dyes need higher amount of 
chemical and auxiliaries for the treatment of effluents as the} display high values for 
COD. Typical effluent strengths from local dyeing plants today are in the range of 1500-
2000 mg/1. This observation is quite interesting and is a strong plus factor for the use of 
natural dyes. No prior literature exists in this area for any comparativ~ analysis. 
j 
Table 4.59 Tolerance limits for effluents from textile industry discharged into 
inland surface waters (CEA, 2007) 
Determinant Tolerance Limit 
pH value at ambient temperature 6.5 - 8.5 
0 
Temeerature, C. max. 40 measured at site of sampling 
I Total suspended solids, mg/1, max. <50 
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD 5) <60 
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COO), mg/1, 250 
1------:-Oils and grease, mg/1, max. .... 10.0 
Phenolic compounds (as phenolic OH), 1.0 
I Sulphides, mg/1, max. 2.0 
Chromium, total. mg/1. max. 2.0 
Hexavalent Chromium, mg/1, max. 0.5 
-
Copper, total, mg/L max. . 3.0 
Zinc, total, mg/l, max. 5.0 
4.14 Basic economic analysis 
5.0 g of mercerized cotton fabrics were dyed to get standard depth shades equivalent to 
synthetic dyes (direct dyes) used in Sri Lankan textile dye industry. The required amounts 
of natural dye extracts were calculated and tabulated as follows. 
" 
149 
Table 4.60 Cost of natural dyeing to get standard depth 
l Na me of the Volume of Cost of Cost Cost of Total Cost to Botanica l Na me Extra. Dye Extraction of Dyeing Dye 1 kg of 
sa mple needed to (Rs.) Raw (Rs.) fabric(Rs.) 
I 
get std. Ma t. 
depth (ml) (Rs.) 
Kothala S. reticulate 970 428 700 660 2758.00 
k urrneric C. domestica 440 600 400 485 1925.00 
-
Venival ( 'jeneslratum 600 540 550 470 2160.00 
l watmadat 
- -
R. cordifolia 700 660 540 865 2765.00 
a 
Tea C. senensis 850 550 200 7'75 2375.00 ( 
Rambutan N. Lappaceum 450 470 125 480 1525.00 
Mangus G. mangos/ana 900 480 100 465 1945.00 I 
I Marygo1d Terecta 950 570 50 440 2010.00 
Jak A.heterophyllus 650 669 50 460 1829.00 
Big Onion A. cepa 760 680 60 475 1975.00 
The cost of dyeing of I kg cotton fabric with syntht=;.,tic dyes is about Rs. 150/= in the 
industry (With Direct Dyes). Replacement cost is somewhat higher than synthetic dyes. 
Even though the cost is high still it is possible to replace synthetic dyes by accepted % 
because there is a trend to accept green dyes in the world. From the above results it can 
be concluded that a considerable amount of synthetic dyes can be replaced b} usmg 
natural dyes. 
~. 1 5 Storage of Dyes (Preparation of Ready to dye concentrate of natural dyes) 
If the raw material cost, transport cost etc., can be reduced to a certain extent these 
standards can be achieved V\ith minimum cost involved. Lmv cost techniques should be 
adopted in order to prepare RTDC (Ready to Dye Concentrates) of natural dyes. Ready to 
Dye Form of natural dye extracts prepared in the laboratory are sho-wn in the Figure 4.62. 
150 
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 
1. S. Reticulata 6. C. Domestica 
2. R. Cordifolia 7. C. Senensis 
3. C. Fenestratum 8. G. Mangos/ana 
4. N. /Lappaceum 9. A. Heterophyllus 
5.A. Cepa I 0. T. Erecta 
Figure 4.67 Ready to use Dye Concentrate of natural dye_s, 
.~· 
4.16 Opportunity to use bio materials for similar colours with different mordants 
and substrates 
lt is important to consider similarities of colours produced by these natural materials. 
By considering the colours developed by each and every bio-material, colours 
obtained can be categorized as follows. The data presented in the CD are the 
supporting material for this classification. 
Table 4.61 Categorisation of colour obtained from bio-materials 
Some of these bio materials are restricted to certain areas of the country. Therefore 
investigations were made on several materials which could produce the same colour. 
The availability of materials in different zones is also shown in the Table 4.6 1. Since 
some of the raw materials selected out of ten were seasonal, there can be problems in 
non seasonal period due to shortage in raw materials, production of dye materials. To 
avoid shortage in raw material supply during this period, possibility of replacement of 
colours were investigated. From the shades obtained for cotton, silk and wool fabrics 
following replacement possibilities emerge. Even though these raw materials could be 
stored in dry form safely during the season, this option is important for sustainability 
of natural dye industry in Sri Lanka. 
151 
Table 4.62 Bio materials with similar colours 
colour Cotton silk Wool 
-
Brown 
N. l.appace wn ( ·. senensis. C. .\enensis. C. senensis . 
A.cepa, S. ret iculata , S. reticulata, 
S. reticu/ata. G. manxostana G. manxostana 
G. mangostana 
G. mangostana C. senensis. A.cepa. ( ·. wmemis ( ·. senensis 
S. reticulata, S. reticula/a S. reticula/a 
.\'. lappaceum X lappaceum N. lappaceum 
C. \enemis A.cepa, 5). reticula/a S. reticula/a S. reticula/a 
G .. \fanxo\tana N. l.appaceum X. Lappaceum G. 
.Y. Lappaceum U \lanxo\tana Mangostana 
<i'. reticula/a C. senensis A.cepa ( ·. ,.e 1/etl\ is C. senensi~ 
G . .ifanl!JHimw G. Manxo.\lana G. M{lngostana N. 
N. /appaceu111 N. lappaceum LaljJaceum 
Yellow 
Weniwelgata ( ·. do111estica. t-(. l . . t omestJca C. domestica 
T eecta T. eec/a T. erecta 
A. heterophyllus A. heterophyllus A. heterophyl/us 
Turmeric C. jenestratu111 ( ·. fenestralum C. fenestra/um 
T. erecla T erecta T. erecla 
A. helerophyllus A. helerophyllus A. helerophyllus 
-
"vlarigold C. domestica C. domeslica C. domestica 
tlower A. heterophyllus A. heterophyllus A. heterophyllus ( ·. 
C. fenestratum ( · . .fene\lratul11 .fenestratum 
Jak sa'' dust C. domestica C. dome)·tica C. domestica 
T. erecta T. erecta T. eecta C. 
C. (enestratu111 C.fene~tratum Fenestratum 
Red 
I Big Onion skin R. cord(folia R. cordifolia R. cordifolia 
Walrnadata A. cepa A. c-epa A. cepa 
1\ fter careful investigation of fabrk: samples dyed with extracts of plant materials in the 
prccence of six different types of metal mordants, the following observation can be made. 
" 
152 
T able 4.63 Bio materials with different mordants 
Plant extr act T yp e of mordant Corresponding K/S value 
cotton silk Wool 
N. /appaceum FeS04 39.92 83.68 183.67 
T erecta FeS04 187.77 271.63 256.54 
S. reticu/ata K2Cr20 7 (cotton), FeS04 (silk and wool) 39.77 81.93 125.28 
C. fenestratum CuS04 (cotton),Alum(wool),FeS04 (silk) 81.86 73.68 137.16 
A. cepa SnC14 (cotton) , FeS04 (silk and wool) 158.97 227.11 539.51 
G. mangostana FeS04 77.70 93.32 129.57 
A. heterophyllus FeS04 39.52 45.62 64.15 
C. sinensis FeS04 34.92 73.68 58.67 
R. cordifo/ia FeS04 39.92 83.68 183.67 
C. domestica Alum (cotton) , FeS04 (silk and wool) 92.42 , 187.44 335.45 , 
4.17 Analysis of questionnaire 
Following results were obtained from the analysis of sample results of questionnaire. 
Total number of participants- 30 
People those who have already started natural dyeing in the industry: 03 
(Selling products in exhibitions) 
Out of theses three there is only one person still carrying out natural dyeing 
Those who are supposed to do natural dyeing in future -19 
... 
From the above analysis those who have targeted specific market is illustrated in the 
following pie chart. 
2'7o 
Small Scale 
Medium Scale 
International 
Large Scale 
Figure 4.68 Analysis of questionnaire 
~ 
4.18 T he ways of fmding r esources: 
From the above analysis ways of finding resources for natural dyeing was al 
investigated. Following chart illustrates the percentages. 
153 
Own plantation - 13 
Buying - 12 
Import - 07 
Both plantation and buying - 07 
Figure 4.69 Sourcing resources 
4.19 The views and comments from the exhibition - over the years are 
• Art gallery Exhibition in Sri Lanka (year 2004) / 
There was a good demand for natural dyed cotton sarees than other natural 
dyed products. Some customers were not satisfied with the prices of natural 
dyed products and there was not a sale just only research to recognize the 
natural dye market by displaying natural dyed products. 
• Art Gallery exhibition (year 2005) 
Significant number of people who were interviewed, suggested expanding 
natural dyeing to a larger scale. 
• Exhibition at BMICH (Year 2005) ... 
No formal stall for naturally dyed products. Some few items were sold 
prepared in 
this maner. 
• Exhibition at BMICH (Y car 2006) 
There was a separate stall for natural dyed products. 
Manufacturing price of a saree - Rs. 1500 -1600/= 
Selling price at the exhi bition - Rs. 3000 - 3500/= 
Good demand for all the natural dyed products. All good quality products 
found ready acceptance and were sold out quickly. 
• Exhibition at BMICH (Year 2007) 
It has been the most successful exhibition to-date in this area with a 
significant participation. The most interesting stall was "Natural Dyed 
Textiles" stall presented by the Department of Textile Industries, Sri Lanka. It 
was appreciated by many people and all the products were sold within the 
154 
first two days. It is possible to market small amount of high price products and if 
one is selling large amount of products one would have to lower the price by about 
50 %. Some photographs taken at these exhibitions are shown below. 
Figure 4.70 Some views of the exhibitions 
... 
" 
155 
Chapter Five 
CONCLUSION S AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
I hi~ chapter summarises the general conclusion~ from this research. This \\·ork is the lir~t 
~ystcmatic study on the possibility of natural dyeing in Sri Lanka. 1\atural dyes cannot be 
u~ed as simple alternatives to synthetic d) es and pigments. They do. ho\\"ever. have the 
potential for application. in specified areas. to reduce the consumption of some of the 
more highly polluting synthetic dyes. fhe characterisation of \\astc materials removes a 
major limiting factor associated \\ith plant materials. 
;I 
5.1 Findings of the study 
Globally the textile industry is undergoing changes. The rapid changes in trends and 
fashion and the demand for good fastness properties on different substrates require a basic 
database describing possible applications of natural dyes. 
rhe following conclusions \\ere drawn from the investigations on screening. extraction 
and characterization of dye sources \>vhich proved that the objectives envisaged have been 
achieved to an appreciable extenl. To achieve at lca~t a partial replacement of synthetic 
dyes by natural dyes. the technical aspects of dyeing~ defined b) the demands of a modern 
dye house. have to be considered at the same time as the demands of the 
producer/manufacturer of the dye. e.g .. the farmer I gro\\ers and \\aste collectors. 
More than 60 %of tested dycings achieved acceptable all round colour fastness properties 
'"'hile the ten selected bio materials indicated over 90% acceptable fastness properties f(.w 
cotton. silk and wool. 
Strong positive environmental performance had been shared with natural dyes. Th~.: 
comparison between wastes after natura l dyeing with the conventional process. revealed 
that a significant lowering of the chemical load. released with dye house effluents can be 
expected. 
~ 
156 
5.2 Ana lysis of individua l dye yielding plant ma teria ls 
Detailed analysis of ten best dye yielding bio materials were carried out as the tina! part 
of the ~tudy following the initial screening of 47 plants. This revealed the suitability of 
~elected materials for textile dyeing and finishing industry. 
The conclusions from the study are stated in association with each study objective. 
(a) To investigate the natural dye producing plants in the world and those which are 
indigenous to Sri Lanka. 
After carrying out a comprehensive literature survey the na,tutal dye producing 
plants in the world were investigated. A considerable trfuount of natural dye 
producing plants are available all over the country. Globally about 55% of dyeing 
is contributed to the textile industry by natural dyes. Especially in India. 
manufacturing and dyeing factories arc available in large scale to meet the local 
and international demand of dyed fabrics. Although there are about thousands of 
bio-materials are available worldwide and about 90 bio-material~ as potential dye 
giving sources have been identified in Sri Lanka in this study (Annexure B). 
(b) To study different techniques of natural dyeing available in the world and to 
investigate the traditional dyeing techniques practiced in Sri Lanka and their current 
status. 
Modern colourant extraction techniques like superficial liquid extraction, 
' 
sonicator extraction. solvent extraction etc .. are also available world wide. In India 
new techniques like sonicator dyeing and high temperature pressure dyeing are 
being carried out with natural dyes. These state of the art techniques are used 
worldwide to meet the current demand in the textile industry. Traditional dyeing 
techniques are also investigated as a part of literature survey to acquire kno\\ ledge 
on ho""' these were being carried out in the past to meet their day to day 
requirements. In rural temples these traditional methods are still being used, 
especially in dyeing of robe of buddhist priests. Currently mqst of the robe~ are 
dyed using synthetic dyes and the traditional techniques are diminishing. Newer 
157 
techniques of natural dyeing should be introduced to obtain same or similar depth 
of shades which are equivalent to synthetic dye shade depths. 
(c) To select plant materials which go as waste but still contain dye materials in 
relatively large quantity. 
Out of the ninety plant materials gathered .t-7 bio materials were selected for 
investigation. Priorit) was given those \.\ hich go as \\aste. but still contains dye 
materials in relatively large quantities. fhesc selected wasteful biomaterials arc 
abundantly available all over the country though some bio-materials are seasonal. 
fherefore proper storage facilities should be introduced to be cqnsumed during off 
seasons. Another aspect is the different varieties of wasterlfl bio-materials. For 
example Rambutan contains two varieties namely yellow and red. On the basis of 
varieties, there should be consideration of the extractability, dye ability, stability 
of the shades produced and depth of shades of these verities. Matrix for analysis 
of possible options was introduced which could be followed in future. 
(d) To select a method which is ecologically friendly and with less health hazards from a 
selected plant material. 
UtiliLation of ultrasound energy for dyeing cotton with natural dyes is a 
definit improvement in the dyeing process. The method selected \.\as sonicator 
d)eing which demonstrated the dyeing at lower operation temperature (LO"• 
energy dyeing -was carried out mostly at room temperature. "'ith not much need of 
' 
heating the dye bath). The mechanical agitation causes slight rise in temperature. 
which helps in dyeing with less energy. In this method ultrasound energy of 20 
kHz frequency was utilized. This would be a very low cost dyeing method that 
could be used in Sri Lanka and is recommended for further analysis. 
Even heat sensitive dyes can be used in sonicator dyeing very comfortably without 
undergoing decomposition. The dye uptake is very good in sonicator dyeing. The 
same bath can be recharged and reused. Due to higher dye uptake the cfnucnt 
is fairly clear thus least amount of dye discharge to the environment. 
158 
(e) To investigate its suitability as a textile dye and to indicate pathways for large scale 
exploitation to support the local textile industry. 
The samples were dyed with natural dyes to get same standard depth shade as can 
be obtained from synthetic dyes. Then the replacement cost was calculated and it 
shO\\ s some what higher than the synthetic dye cost. Even though the cost is high 
still it is possible to replace synthetic dyes b) acceptable percentage because there 
is a trend to accept green dyes in the \\Orld. It is possible to improve on this 
analysis with a better scale up stud). 
( t) lo investigate the role of ultrasonic and conventional dyeing pro~Sses. These high-
energy releasing devices used for dyeing arc advancements /.er the conventional 
heating method. 
Comparative study of Conventional vs Sonicator dyeing 
The conventional method of dyeing has been to boil the fabric or yarn in dye bath, 
till the desired colour is obtained. 
• Enormous amount of heat is consumed in terms of heating the dye bath. 
Some dyes, which are heat sensitive, cannot be used in conventional dyeing 
because prolonged heating decomposes the dye molecules. 
• The dye uptake by the fabric is also far from exhaustion and as a result. fair 
amount of dye is ""asted. 
(g) To emphasize on making ready- to- use ne,,er natural dyes for commercial use. fhese 
plant extracts are othem ise stick) masses. not very easy to handle and store. 
Extracted dye samples can be used as ready to dye stage by adding stabiliser to the 
extract. The stabilizer added was methyl paraban and it last for about one month. 
But shelf life of these samples also should be determined for manufacturing 
processes. This was not done in this research due to time constraints. 
\; 
159 
Finally the results can be summarised as follows:-
Table 5.1 Bio materials with different mordants 
-
-
Plant extract Type of mordant f-Corresoondine K/S va
lue 
cotton silk wool 
S. lappaceum FeSOo~ 39.92 83.68 183.67 _
 
T erecta FeS01 187.77 271.63 25
6.54 
1 S. reticulata K2Cr20 7(cotton). FeS04 (silk and "'ool) 39.77 81.93 125.28 
'genestratum CuS04(cotton),Alum(wooi).FeS04 (silk) 81.86 73.68 137. 16 
A. cepa SnCI4 (cotton), FeS04 (silk and wool) 158.97 227.11 539.51 
!:!.:...!.nan go sIan a FeS04 77.70 93.32
 129.57 
A. hetero[!_hy_llu!!_ J'cS04 39.52 , 45.62 64.15 
1 C. sinensis FeSOo~ 34.92' 73.68 5
8.67 
R. cordifolia reS04 39.~2 83.68 183.67 
1 C. domestica Alum (cotton). FeS04 (silk and wool) 92.42___J_ 187 .4~ 335.45 -
Table 5.2 Categorisation of colour obtained from bio-materials 
Brown colour Yell ow Colour Red Colour 
I--
---
N. lappaceum wet & dry C. fenestratum Wet A. cepa dry 
G. mangos/ana wet ( ·. domestica "'et & dry R. cordijolia arid 
--
- -
- -"---
C. senensis wet T erecta wet & dry_ 
S. reticulata Wet & dr} A. heterophvllus wet & dry 
... 
Dye exhaustion percentages of I 0 bio-materials can be summerised according to the 
textile substrates as follows. (i.e. for cotton. silk and wool). 
Ta ble 5.3 Dye exhaustion percentages of I 0 bio-materials 
Plant extract 
. % dye uptake 
Cotton Silk \ Wool 
i 
Rambutan (N. lappaceum) 50-55% 52-62% I 60-65% 
f---
- --
---
-
Marigold (Tegetus erecla) 45-52% 38-46% 37-51% 
Kothala l limbutu (S. reticulata) 31-50% 37-52% 38-50% 
1---
Wcniwalgata (Cjenestratum) 31-50% 37-52% 38-50% I 
-
Big onion (A . cepa) 65-68% 70-74% I 78-82% 
Mangus (G.mangostana) 64-70% 75-82% 80-84% I 
Jak (A. heterophyl/u:,) 55-62% 68-70% 59-73% I 
Walmadata (R. cordifolia) 23-42% ~-48% _I 14-65% j 
-
-
160 
I 
i 
5.3 Positive environmental performance 
Inductively Couple Plasma Spectrophotometer study on effluent from dye baths showed 
that the concentration of toxic heavy metals in dyes and the dyed fabrics was much below 
the stipulated limits and in most cases below detectable levels if present at all. 
Comparative charts of concentration of toxic heavy metals in different dyes are given. 
I he emphasis was on effluent strength and to completely classify these extracts as eco-
friendl)' dyeing process. As dyeing ~ ith synthetic colours represents an enormous 
ecological problem, there are environmental benefits to be had from greater use of 
renewable primary products and resources to be found in many field~ the use of non-
' 
renewable resources is minimized, ecological damage is reduc~ over the complete 
production chain and the value of agricultural areas is increased. Additionally, jobs arc 
created and safeguarded with a regional creation of value and a simultaneous use of 
renewable raw materials. In the current economic context these jobs could be termed as 
green jobs. 
The criteria for sustainable usc of natural dyes in modern textile dye houses are: 
LO\\ resource consumption (life cycle approach) 
LO\\ emissions (life cycle approach) 
5.4 Recommendations 
... 
lhe concept of Ready to use dye concentrate has been introduced in the study. The 
stabilization chemicals identified ~ith some preliminary shelf life stability studies. A 
' 
further study of this area is important because the international market also should be 
targeted with natural dyes. Shelf life of the individual bio-materials are also should be 
investigated to consider them as marketable products. These natural dye concentrates 
should be in powder form as in the case of synthetic dyes. lf it is in liquid form it is 
diflicult to handle such as transport problems may arise. Therefore these dyes should be 
in powder form in order to handle easily. 
loxicology of the extracted dyes should be investigated because prolonged contact of the 
skin with these dyes rna)' cause health issues, viz skin rashes, allergies and skin cancer 
etc., which can be of chronic type or immediate response. 
161 
Colour shades also can be varied according to the geographical conditions like soil. 
climate. This also should be investigated. 
5.5 Conclusion 
It was proven that plant dyeing on an industrial scale is possible as the experiments on 
plant dyeing were positive. The production of dye-prototypes needs further research in 
order to evaluate the consequences of various preservation and standardization 
techniques. The study had concluded the production of dye concentrates and stabili7ation 
aspects for shelf life of dyes. 
( 
Use of ultra sound appears to be quite a premising approach. sonicaf~r dyeing (at 20 kH7) 
used in case of natural dyeing has also been proved to give excellent dyeing performance. 
Therefore it was concluded that if some how these unconventional devices can be used at 
pilot scale, it would be a significant development in the field of dyeing industry. 
From all the results obtained and the conclusions drawn, it can be said that the dyes 
extracted from waste bio-materials could contribute considerably to a cleaner dyeing 
industry. Some of the natural dyes in their chemical oxidative strength is environmentally 
compatible and can be considered as acceptable. ... 
The findings and the conclusions of the present study may lead the textile chemists to 
work on making the present textile industry an eco-friendl) industry. Thus it can be 
concluded that the use of natural d)e in d)eing various textiles on a commercial basis v.ill 
. 
be a safe practice that could save our environment and improve the health of mankind for 
Sri Lanka it can be a significant green industry. 
To conclude, there is an urgent need lor proper collection. documentation, assessment and 
characterization of dye yielding plants and their dyes, as well as research to overcome the 
limitation of natural dyes. After due characterisation process development will involve a 
modeling and simulation step. This would involve developing relevant extraction and 
dyeing methods to predict scale-up operations. 
" 
162 
..... 
List of Publications originated from the thesis 
rhe following publications were originated from the studies on natural dyes. 
I. Samudrika U.G .. "Investigation of jak leaves and saw dust for potential colouring 
agent for textile substrates", Proceedings of the I th ERU Symposium, Oct.. 2006 
' pp 103-105 
2. Samudrika U.G., "Investigation ofjak leaves and saw dust for potential colouring 
agent for textile substrates··. Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Sessions. Institute of 
Engineers. Sri Lanka. Dec.2006, pp 65 
3. Samudrika U.G .. "Investigation on Cashe\" nut Shell Liquid as potential colouring 
and finishing agents for Textile substrate ... Proceedings of the 62nd Annual 
Sessions. 2006. Institute of l:ngineers. Sri Lanka, Dec.2006, pp 63 
4. Samudrika U.G., "Ultrasound techniques in Natural Dye ~pplication to Textile~" 
Proceedings ofthe 13th ERU Symposium. Nov.2007, pp 4t-48 
5. Samudrika U.G., ''An Environmental performance analysis of natural dyes" 
,Proceedings ofthe 14th ERU Symposium, Nov.2008, pp 26-27 
6. Samudrika U.G., "Extraction of Textile colourants from kitchen wastes", 
Proceedings of the 14th ER U Symposium, Oct. 2008 , pp 43-44 
7. Samudrika U .G., "Extraction, Isolation & ldenti {ication of colouring substances 
in \oca\ natura\ dye yielding plants jak saw dusf', Proceedings of the \4th ERU 
Symposium, Oct. 2008, pp 138-139 
8. Samudrika U.G., ''Investigation of Domestic kitchen wastes as potential colouring 
agent for textile substrates", Proceedings of the 64th Annual Sessions. Institute of 
Engineers, Sri Lanka .. Dec.2008. pp 267 
9. Samudrika U.G., "An Environmental burd,tn analysis of synthetic dye vs. natural 
dyes·· . Proceedings of the 64th Annual Sessions. Institute of Engineers. Sri Lanka 
. Dec. 2008, pp 63 
Interna tional Publications 
I 0. Vankar P. S .. Shanker R .. Wijayapala S .. de Alwis A.P.P .. de Silva N.G.Il.. 
"Dyeing of cotton. V\OOI and silk v\ith extract of Nephefium Lappaceum 
(Rambutan) pericarp ". Asian I cxtile Journal- July 2007 . pp 66 70 
II. Vankar P. S., Shanker R. , Wijayapala S .. de Alwis A.P.P., de Silva N.G.H. 
,"Dyeing of cotton. wool and silk with extract of Salacia Prenoid\· (Kothala 
Himbutu)", Asian Textile Journal, June 2007, pp 69- 74 
12. Vankar P. S, Shanker R., Wijayapala S. , de Alwis APP, de Silva NGH, ''Dyeing 
of cotton, wool and si lk with extract Coscinium fenestratum (Weniwal) ", Asian 
Textile Journal ,October 2007, pp 59 - 64 
13. Vankar P. S .. Shanker R., Wijayapala S .. "Improved wash and light fastnesses by 
sonicator dyeing of cotton. silk and wool with Curcuma domestica valet extract", 
International Dyer193 (7), June 2008. pp 38-42 
14. Vankar P. S .• Shanker R .. Wijayapala S .. "Dyeing of Cotton. Wool and Silk v.ith 
extract of Allium Cepa". Journal of Pigment and Resin Technology . Jan. 2009 
15. Vankar P. S. Shanker R .. Wijayapala S .. ··Dyeing Cotton. Silk and Wool yarn 
\\ ith extract of Garcinia mWJKOstana peric:arp," . the Journal of Textile and 
AppareL Technology and Management (JT 1\ TM). Volume 6. Issue I . 2009 
16. Yankar P. S .. Shanker R .. Wijayapala S .. "Utilisation of temple \\astc flO\\er T 
erecta (Marigold) for dyeing of Cotton. Wool and Silk on industrial scale", the 
Journal of Textile and Apparel. Technology and Management (JT/\ TM). Volume 
6. Issue I. 2009 
.I 
... 
" 
ANNEXURE- A 
Questionnaire 
University of Moratuwa. 
Department of Textile and Clothing Technology. 
• Name 
• Designation 
• Factory Name 
I. Ha\e you already started Natural d)eing in Textile and Apparel industry? 
Yes 
No 
2. Or do you hope to start in future'? 
Yes 
No 
3. If you already started when? (The year) 
4. At that time what is your targeted market'? (pl. select) 
International 
Local - Small scale 
Medium scale 
Large scale ... 
I 
5. If you deal with international market. \.\hat arc the brands that you deal with? 
6. Do you use your 0\.\ n brand name? 
Yes 
- ·o 
7. If you target local market. how do you sell your products? 
Through your own shop (name. location) 
Through distribution to other shops 
Through exhibitions 
8. Is there a sufficient demand for your product? 
Yes 
No 
9. Do you produce the quantity of market demand? 
Yes 
No 
A-I 
~ 
I 0. At present what is your targeted market? 
International 
Local- small scale 
Medium scale 
Large scale 
12. What are the yams that you use for Natural Dyeing? 
Cotton 
Silk 
Wool 
Nylon 
Synthetic 
13. What do you think of the demand ofNatural Dyeing Market? 
Increasing 
Decreasing :1 
Average · 
14. What do you think the cost of the Natural dyed products? 
Same as the synthetic dyed product 
Higher than the synthetic dyed products 
Less than synthetic dyed products 
15. Do you have any competition with synthetic dyeing product? 
Yes 
No 
16. Mostly plants have been used to extract Natural Dye. Do you think it will etTect to 
the environment? 
Yes 
No 
17. How do you find resources? 
Own plantation 
Buying from local market 
Import. 
" 
A-2 
ANNEXURE B 
A list of bio-materials used for natural dye sources 
I No. 
--
-
Name Botanical name Fa mily Par ts used --
I Thekka Tec:tona grandis Linn. f Verbenaccae Leaves, Bark 
2 Dan pothu sv=rgium cumini L. .Jamzm Myrtaccac Stem, Bark 
3 Kohomba A=adirachtin indica Mcliaceac Bark. 
- 4 -~mbutan 
-~ -- -- --
Nephelium lappaceum L. Sapindaccac Skin 
--
5 Bulath Piper Belle L. Pipcraceae Leaves 
.....___ 
H Jak Artocarpus hetoroph)·ilus Moraceae Saw dust --Weniwel Coscinium /eneslralum Ga.col. Men ispcrmaceae Stem 
r-
8 Kurundu Cinnamomum verum Synonym c:. La}Jracea Bark 
r- - --- --
9 Kothala Himbutu Salicia ret ic:ulala Hippocrateacaea Bark 
1-
10 Dclum Punic:a granatum Lithracaea fruit skin 
~I Rath Handun Pterocarpus Santalinus Lf Fabaceac Stem 12 Ranawara Cassia auric:ulata C'csalpinaccae Flowers 
-
13 Aralu Terminalia Chebula Combretaceae Fruit 
14 Bulu terminalia helerica Combrctaceae Fruit 
15 Munamal Pothu 1Himusops elengi L. Sapotaccae Stem 
17 Mangus Garicnia mangos/ana L. Clusiaceae Skin -- -
16 Welmadata, Ruhia Cordifolia L. Rubiaceae Root and Stem 
-- -
18 Daspethiva Tegetus erecla .... Asteraceae Petals 
--
G9 Big onion Allium cella L. Eliaceae Skin 0 Wad a Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Malvaceae Flowers 
HI Tea Camellia Sinensis L I heaceae Used leaves -- -- '- -- -- - - --2 Katarou Clitoria lernalea L. Fabaceac Flowers 
--
r ?" Kuppamenia Acalvpa indica L. . 1:-,uphorbiaceae Leaves _ __, 
r-
~4 Kopi Coffea Arahica L. Rubiaccae Leaves, seeds 
1 25 Kottamba Terminalia c:alappa L Rubiaccac Riped leaves 
26 Devadara 
-
Erithroxylum monogynum Linn. Euphorbiaceae Stem 
27 Beet root Beta vulgaris Linn. Amaranthaceae Rysomc 
28 Kaippu Acacia catechu Lnn. Fabaccae \\OOd 
I--
29 Pethangi Caesalpinia sappan Fabaceae wood 
r--
---
30 Marathondi Lawsonia intermis L. Lythraccae wood, leaves 
r-
~ 
31 Se\um \\el 0/deulandia umbellate L. Rubiaccac Roots and tubers 
-
32 Rasandun Berberis aristata Berberidaceae Roots and tubers 
I 33 Ahu, Dumbu Jforinda cilri/ofia L Rubiaccac Roots and tubers 
~ Kudu miris Toddalia asiatica Lamk Rutacea Roots and tubers -- - f- -- - - -5 Kaha Curcuma domestica Valet L. Zingiberaceae Roots and tubers 
8- I 
n--36 Kcla gas Butea mono.\perma Lam. Fabaceac Flowers 
I 37 Scpalika Nyctanthus arbo-tristis L. Olcaccae Flo\\ers 
I 38 Maliththa Woodf'ordia.fi'uitticosa __ Lythrac~ Flowers 
- ---
-
-
- --
39 /\naththa Bixa Ovellana L. Bixaceac Seeds 
- 1-· 
40 Nil awariya lndi~ofera tine/oraL. Fabaceae Leaves and stem 
- 1-
41 Hamgarilla Mallotus J!!1illipiueses Lam. Euphobiaceae Stem 
42 Welikaha MemeCJ1loa ca[!_ilellatuae L. Mclastomataceae Rhysomc 
43 Sen kottan Semecwpus anacardium L. !\ nacard iaceae seed 
44 Kumbuk Terminalia w1una L Combretaceac Bark 
1 45 llik Lannea coromandelica L. !\ nacard iaceae 
1 
Bark 
--
--
46 Ipil Ipil Leucaena leucocephala L. Fabaceac Bark 
I 47 Gas Pencla 
--
Sapindus tri/(>liatus L. Sapipdaceae Seed 
I 48 Wal inguru Zingiber cv/indricum Moon Zligiberaceae Rh ysome 
I 49 Puwak Areca catechu L. [recaceac Seed 
I 50 Kothala Himbutu Salicia reticula/a L. IIi ppocratcacaca wood and root 
1--- --
51 Bowitia Osbekia aspera L. Melastomataccae Bark 
- -
- --
-
- - ---
-f--
52 Mal ehcla Cassia fistula L. Fabaceac Bark 
- -
53 Mahogani Swietenia mahagoni L. Meliaceac Bark. Sa\v dust - 1--
54 Bulu Terminalia herelia L. Combrctaceae Bark ·-1--
r-ss Madan Syzygium cumin
i L. Mirtaccac Bark 
56 Rath mal lxora coccinea L. Rubiaceac Flowers 
l 57-
- -----
- ----
-- --
-- 1-- 1- --
Kaju Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae Bark And ti·uit --
58 Sera Crmbopogon cutralus L.' Poaceac Rhysomc 
li9 In guru Zingiber cylindricum Moon Zingibcraceac Rh ysomc 
f 60 Rata kaha Bixa ore/lana L. Bixaceac Seed 1 Alisarin Hydrorcy anatharaquinones Stem 
62 Masakka Quercus lnfectoria L. Fagaceae Rh)SOmc 
63 Pipigngna Cucumis sativusl L. Cucurbitaceae Fruit - -
64 Gammalu Pterocwpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae Stem 
65 Rata-em bi II a Monts Tinctoria I. Moraccae Fruit --
66 1 Annasi Ananas Comosus L. Bromeliaceae Leaves 
67 I Kesel Musa Sapientum L. Musaceae Muwa 
1 68 Goraka Ggarcinia Cambogia L. Clusiaccae Fruit 
69 Nclum Nelumbo 11/ucifera gaerln Nelumbonaceac Flowers 
--
--
I 71 Carrot Daucus carrola L. Apiaceae Fruit 
I n 
-
Daisiya Chrvsanthemum Leucanthemum L. Asteraceae Flowers 
In 
·~ - - I--- f-- - -
- ~ 
Grass Zingiber cylindricum Moon Lingiberaceae Leaves 
I 74 
- 1--· 
Rosa Rosa Indica L. Rosaceae Flower 
75 Suriyakantha Helianthus Annuu.\· L. Astcraccae Flowers -
B-2 
------
76 Thakkali CS'o/anum Lv• ;copersium L. y, ___.__ 
lohules L. 
-77 Eucalyptus Euca~rptus K.!_ K: 
ndricum .\tfoon f78 Lemon grass Zin~iher <.Tiir _._
L. r 79 Nivithi Basel/a alha , 
-
ICcidu 
is L 
I 80 Kudalu I lmpatiensjla~ 
81 Canas Canna ediul . 
--
u 
I 82 Boganvila •u specwbili.\ L. Bougainville1 
r!los L. 
--
'!.Ji!ws 
85 I Beligcta Aegle marme 
- .. 
86 Kaduru Cerbera man 
(.' 
h 
Ji L. 
-
rcteatu L. 
·ophylus L. 
ilh'u Valet L. 
--~7 Katakaluwa .\.frrica naga -~ 
~8 1 Thembili Eugenia hru 
89 i Jak Artocurpus t 90 Turmeric Curcuma f) 
... 
13-3 
Asteraceae 
Myrtaceae 
Zingibcraceae 
Basellaceae 
Fru 
Bar 
Lc: 
See 
t 
k 
ves 
Balsaminaccaf L' l ~ e I ,~ ""' cr 
FIO\vcr Cannaccae 
I Nyctasinaceal.: I ~~~ Rutaceae 
" f. If\\\ er 
In l 
---.-
Apoc) naceac 
---
Myricaceae l·n 
Myricaceac llu 
-
" I Morac'cae _ , , root Stcn 
Z)hgibcraccae orne R)SI 
w. 
Raw Materia l 
~ Walmadata 
2 1 Madan Pothu 
- 3 1 Venival 
4 Turmeric 
5 1 Kothala llimbutu 
6 Oelum (Skin) 
17 Rath Handun 
18 Ranawara 
r 9 Ara1u 
10 Bulu 
I I 1 Munamal Pothu 
12 Jak 
13 Mangustene 
1-l- r----~ --Rambutan (Yellow) 
15 Rambutan (Red ) 
l 16 Men:gold (Orange )-I 
I 17 Merygold (Orange )-2 
I 18 Big Onion 
I 19 Red onion 
~ Eucalz:~tus 
21 I Nuga 
I-- . 22 Bel1 
23 Jramusu 
11._4 King coconut -·-
1 25 Arcconut 
ANNEXURE -C 
Sieve Analysis Data 
Mesh size (Jl.m) 
0 150 250 
1120 375 290 
1350 500 100 
'--·--
1200 420 300 
1015 550 150 
1215 300 415 
1150 500 200 
1075 600 250 
1150 700 250 
1050 700 200 
1025 450 400 
1065 600 200 
1100 700 100 
1050 450 300 
1095 600 175 
1035 500 300 
1100 700 100 
1030 500 270 
1020 430 395 
1025 550 225 
1025 650 200 
1045 550 ... 225 
1200 460 215 
1115 600 200 
1065 565 275 
1-------- 1----
1075 655 185 
C-1 
355 
2 15 
50 
80-
285 
70 
150 
75 
200 -
,50 
. ·-
;/125 
135 
100 
200 
130 
E 0 0 
1- 155 
200 
125 i 
180 ! 
125 I 
85 I 
95 
- ·--
~-
85 
"' 
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